Abstract A paper which explains the beginning of radioactive dating - a process which can give scientists the age of rocks and other materials and help us to identify when Earth began. The paper explores the progression of this method and its uses today, as well as discusses different methods that are used, other than carbon-12, such as potassium or argon dating.
From the Paper "Many view radioactivity as the end of the world in the event of a nuclear war. With its astonishing power, radioactivity could perhaps destroy and thus end the world. What many don't know about radioactivity is that is has the potential to tell scientists the age - or the beginning - of the Earth. Quite ironically, radioactivity could very well be responsible for both showing the beginning and the ending of Earth. A process called radiometric dating can give scientists the age of rocks and other materials and help us to identify when Earth began."
Abstract Radioactive dating is the process of determining the age of rocks and other specimens from the decay of their radioactive elements. By applying this information, geologists are able to decipher the 4.6-billion-year history of the earth. The paper introduces the history of this type of dating in chronological order. It discusses other issues related to radioactive dating such as Carbon-14 dating, fission track dating, Potassium Argon Dating, the Rubidium-Strontium method, lead-alpha age and debated ideas of radioactive dating.
From the Paper "Cosmic rays from the sun strike nitrogen 14 atoms in the earth's atmosphere and cause nitrogen atoms to lose a proton making it a carbon isotope this then turns into radioactive carbon 14, which combines with oxygen to form radioactive carbon dioxide. All living things are in equilibrium with the atmosphere, and the radioactive carbon dioxide is absorbed from the air and used by green plants. Then the radioactive carbon dioxide gets passed on through the plants into the food chain and the carbon cycle. All living things contain a constant ratio of Carbon 14 to Carbon 12 of about 1 in a trillion. The amount of carbon 14 lost in a species is continually replenished as long as it still takes in food and oxygen. At death, the exchange of carbon 14 ceases and any that is left in the tissues of the organism begins to decay to Nitrogen 14, this is not replenished by any new C-14. The change in the Carbon 14 to Carbon 12 ratio is the basis for dating this dating technique. The half-life is so short (5730 years) that this method can only be used on materials less than 70,000 years old. A lot of archaeological dating uses this method. It is also very useful in attempting to date remnants of the ice ages (Pleistocene epoch.)"
Tags: Marie, Pierre, Curie, Clair, Patterson, U, 235, atom
Abstract The paper discusses why the U.S. felt it necessary to conduct nuclear testing and explains the types of nuclear tests, what the bomb does and its impact on humans. The paper reveals the extent of the testing, the growing awareness of it and the government cover-ups involved. The paper then describes the Nevada tests and reveals the human guinea pigs used and the long-term impact of these tests. The paper provides a discussion on modern concerns about radioactive fallout exposure but believes that information from people who are seeking compensation for injuries that they link to radioactive fallout exposure should be treated in a cautious manner. The paper does conclude, however, that one becomes inclined to agree with the downwinders' assertions that many scientists are willfully ignoring the overwhelming facts. The paper asserts that the government must realize that the willful poisoning of American citizens is untenable and those who are suffering because of this experimentation deserve compensation.
Outline:
Introduction
Necessity of the Testing
Types of Nuclear Tests
The First Nuclear Test
What the Bomb Does
The Bomb's Impact on Humans
Extent of the Testing
Growing Awareness
Government Cover-ups
Island Testing
The Nevada Tests
Human Guinea Pigs
Impact of the Tests
Long-ranging Impact
The Most Famous Victim
The End of Above-Ground Testing
Modern Concerns
Conclusion
From the Paper "Though modern people have concerns about atomic testing and the impact of radioactive fallout, ignorance about the atomic bomb and radiation meant that people who were exposed to such testing in the 1950s and 1960s were frequently unaware of the toxic and possibly fatal consequences of such radiation. On the contrary, rather than strive to avoid toxic fallout for bystanders, the government actually went out of its way to minimize the perception of risk. For example, in Las Vegas, businesses actually touted the nuclear testing as "a super fireworks spectacle for tourists." The government did not discourage this use, but instead allowed thousands of civilians and military personnel to fallout that it knew, or certainly suspected, would be hazardous if not lethal."
Abstract This paper is a biography of Marie Curie's life, as well as her work and impact in the fields of physics and chemistry. It also pays particular notice to radioactivity. The paper is based on the strong theme that ?nothing in life is to be feared, only understood,? a quote attributed to Marie Curie herself.
From the Paper "Marie's childhood was not a perfect one by any means. She was the fifth child in her family, and soon after she was born, both of her parents lost their jobs as teachers. Despite losing their jobs, Marie's parents still managed to instill into their daughter the value of education, and had taught her to read by age 4. Her parents also instilled in Marie a sense of duty. This, combined with the family's economic circumstances lead Marie to lead ?the most Spartan of lives.? ["Marie Curie", Minist?re des Affaires "trang"res de la R"publique Fran"aise, 1.] Marie's childhood continued to be harsh, as she had to deal with the deaths of both her mother, and one of her sisters by age 11. This only served to create a sense of ?agnosticism that would later bolster her faith in science,? ["Marie Curie", Minist?re des Affaires "trang"res de la R"publique Fran"aise, 1.] however. Despite the many setbacks that seemed to litter her childhood, Marie persevered. In spite of the long hours she spent helping cook meals for the boarders that her family had taken in, at age 15, Marie won a medal for excellence at her high school, where the examinations where administered in Russian. She dreamed of someday becoming a scientist?something that was not socially-acceptable for women to do in Poland in the 1880?s."
Abstract This paper explains how a nuclear reactor produces energy. The paper includes a discussion of fission, radioactivity, types of reactors and how they produce electricity.
From the Paper "All modern nuclear reactors operate on the principal of nuclear fission. Nuclear fission is a process in which the nucleus of an atom is split when it absorbs a free neutron after a collision occurs between the atom and the neutron. Splitting the nucleus of the atom releases large amounts of nuclear energy contained within the nucleus. Once the nucleus of the atom is split, multiple neutrons are released which are used to split nuclei of other atoms, causing what is known as a chain reaction. The chain reaction will continue as long as an average of one neutron per fission is absorbed by a nucleus. By harnessing and manipulating the energy that is released, other types of energy can be obtained. The power developed by nuclear fission has been used by man to create, as in the driving of an electric generator and for propulsion, as well as destroy, as in the release of atomic explosion. Whereas the fission in a nuclear reactor is precisely controlled to prevent a nuclear meltdown, the fission in an atomic explosion is not controlled and the shock wave produced by the splitting atom and its resulting chain reaction is equal to several thousand tons of TNT."
Abstract An argumentative paper, exploring the chemical make up of uranium, showing that it is extremely difficult to dispose of this material in a complete way. It looks at current disposal practices in the world and analyzes their pros and cons.
From the Paper "Radioactive material is defined as having atoms with extremely excited outer electron shells. This makes them unstable, excitable and an efficient means of providing energy to a population that can afford a nuclear power plant. The main source of this energy is Uranium. This is a naturally occurring element found in rocks and seawater. It is the most heavy element in the periodic table, having 146 neutrons and 92 protons in its stable form. The instable form has 143 neutrons and this is the kind that is used in cores to create energy (UIC website)."
Tags: disposal, nuclear, radioactive, sun, waste, water
From the Paper "As nuclear weapons and nuclear power plants have proliferated over the last ten years, the need to safely dispose of the nuclear waste associated with them has grown, as well. In addition to these two sources of radioactive waste, there are other, less dramatic sources. Complicating the issue of radioactive waste is the not-in-my-backyard-syndrome: while most individuals agree that something has to be done about radioactive waste, few individuals are willing to have a radioactive waste site in the immediate area. This research examines the various types of radioactive waste and the progress toward establishing long-term waste sites for them.
According to the U.S. government, there are four categories of radioactive waste: uranium mill tailings, which are what is left over after uranium is extracted from raw uranium; high-level ... "
A look at how the technique of PET (positron emission tomography) has advanced both our ability to diagnose brain injury and our knowledge of localisation of function within the brain.
Abstract This paper examines the technique of positron emission tomography, a technique used for imaging brain activity by measuring the flow of blood containing radioactive atoms that emit positrons. It describes the uses of PET scanning as a research tool and in the diagnosis of brain injuries. It also compares PET to other similar methods such as MRI scanning, x-raying and CT scanning.
From the Paper "In particular, PET has been used with great success in the study of which parts of the human brain are involved in language. With the assistance of positron emission tomography, studies have shown striking evidence that there are several independent regions of the brain involved in language. Among these areas that are crucial for language and speech are Wernicke's and Broca's regions. Due to the use of these non-invasive techniques (PET, MRI etc.) we now know that these regions are significantly spread out and are not located near the conventional language regions. We can see in scans from patients that different regions of the brain are used for specific tasks. Eg. a patient hearing words, reading words and seeing words uses very different parts of the brain for each task. (Delcomyn; 1998)."
Abstract This paper assesses the likelihood of a terrorist group using chemical, biological, radioactive, or nuclear (CBRN) weapons. The paper describes some of the possible effects of CBRN weapons used by terrorists and discusses the value these weapons would have for the terrorist. In an attempt to brief national policy makers, the paper lists the principal terrorist threats in terms of groups or specific operations. The paper examines the strengths and weaknesses of the intelligence system for dealing with terrorism. The paper explores the targets a terrorist leader is likely to attack for maximum effectiveness.
Outline
CBRN Weapons
Possible Effects of CBRN Weapons
Value of CBRN Weapons for the Terrorist
Principal Terrorist Threats
The Intelligence System
Maximum Effect Targets
From the Paper "Renowned persons in the US, has been expressive in their claim that a terrorist CBRN assault is looming. Bill Clinton, President of the United States declared in a January 1999 featured writing in the New York Times that there are increased chances that a terrorist gang would unleash a chemical weapon in the land of America in the coming few years. Senator Sam Nunn declared that the danger of terrorist assault on the cities of America through CBRN has attained a stage where a daring and strong endeavor is necessary. This is an obvious and current threat to the American citizens that needs an opportune reaction. According to FBI Director Louis Freeh who stated in 1997 purchase, propagation, endangered or real use of weapons of mass destruction -WMD by a terrorist gang or persons constitutes one of the serious dangers to the United States. Richard Lugar -the Presidential candidate took a sequence of costly television spots during the year 1999 to exhibit the serious danger caused by nuclear terrorism."
Abstract This paper explains the variables that must be considered in the decision to develop nuclear power capability such as (1) the actual location of a nuclear power plant, (2) the question of security and (3) the compatibility of entering into a nuclear program within the context of the country's long-range energy plans, international policies and aspirations and their level of scientific and technical education. The author points out that the critical gap in plans to expand British civil nuclear programs, which is widely recognized both by promoters and opposers of nuclear power, is the problem of managing radioactive wastes. The paper relates that the French policy differs from from the British policy in that it has gone beyond the concept of "nuclear substitution", designed to diversify and stabilize energy-producing capacity, into a policy of "nuclear electrification" under which the growth of electricity consumption has been deliberately encouraged.
From the Paper "The lack of progress in the British industry reflects a number of fundamental differences between the two nations. One is relatively energy-rich while the other is energy-poor, and the insecurity experienced by the French has been much less marked on the other side of the Channel. On the contrary, the British have enjoyed a flexibility in energy options that is enviable. But beyond commercial questions, and beyond questions of energy supply and demand, lie the differences in institutional power and control and differences in political planning processes that expose the actions of the British industry to far more democratic scrutiny. The anti-nuclear lobby, though less volatile than its French equivalent, is stronger and more consistent. Faced with the luxury of choice, the decision-making process slows to the point of meandering and energy planning wallows in incoherence. This has two, sometimes, conflicting, consequences. Precipitate action on a major scale is checked, but the price of these checks may be slackening technical impetus and loss of commercial advantage."
Abstract This paper presents three chemistry experiments: (1) the effect of temperature on solubility and the thermodynamic relationships, (2) radioactive decay, and (3) electroplating with copper. The paper gives experimental details and calculations for each experiment.
From the Paper "This experiment examined the effects of changing temperature on the amount of solute that would dissolve in a given amount of water. Water solubility is defined as ..."
Abstract This paper examines how ion mobility spectrometry (IMS) is one of the most widely used and most promising of the methods available for the detection and identification of explosives today. It looks at how two independent principles and the foundations of this technique are that ions can be created at ambient pressure from radioactive materials and how these gas phase ions can be characterized rapidly for mobility in weak electric fields. Several diagrams are included with the paper.
Outline:
Introduction
How it Works
Instrumentation
Sample Introduction
Ion Formation
From the Paper "The electric field is established via a voltage divider and a series of conducting rings stacked between the ion shutter and the detector. In the drift region, there is a drift gas at constant pressure, which may be between 1 Torr and atmospheric pressure depending on the configuration of the IMS instrument. The ions experience a number of collisions as they pass through the buffer gas. These collisions hinder the ions progress to the detector. Larger ions move slower through the drift tube due to greater collision cross sections causing more collisions. Smaller ions, on the other hand, move faster as their collision cross section is smaller and therefore they encounter fewer collisions. This explains how the separation via shape and size is possible."
Abstract This paper looks at how Yucca Mountain, located in Nye County Nevada, is the result of The Nuclear Waste Policy Act that tasked the U.S. Department of Energy with finding, building, operating, and maintaining an underground facility for the storage of nuclear waste that has been piling up since the 1940s. The paper discusses how the geological makeup that makes Yucca Mountain desirable is ignimbrite created by several eruptions of a now extinct volcano and how the ignimbrite (tuff) has special characteristics that scientists believe will contain the radioactive material for hundreds of thousands of years. TSpecifically, the paper makes the argument that the United States Government should continue to research, develop, and eventually use the Yucca Mountain Nuclear Waste Storage Facility because doing so could increase economy for the state which would include more funding for school, roads, and emergency services.
From the Paper "The second major argument made for the stop of the storage facility is that the site won't actually maintain the radioactive material. The facility is located 1000 feet below ground and 1000 feet above the water table and the waste will be stored in several layers of stainless steel and nickel alloy material that will act as a container and as a rock shield should a major earthquake occur that would collapse the stone tunnel. Even if the containers should be damaged or break down, tests show that by the time the radioactive material reached the water table it would be inert. Although Nevada is ranked the third highest state in seismic activity there is no evidence that continental plates meet in the area. The risk of volcanic activity has also been pushed as a reason to shut down the site since the area was formed by volcanic activity but science shows that last minor eruption in the area occurred over eighty thousand years ago and the last large eruption that formed most of the mountains in the region occurred over 12 million years ago. "
Abstract This paper explains that a "dirty nuke", a radiological dispersion device (RDD), is a combination of conventional explosives and radioactive material designed to scatter dangerous and sub-lethal amounts of radioactive material over a general area. The author points out that the consensus among experts is that that terrorists are more likely to use a "dirty nuke" rather than a conventional nuclear bomb because materials for this device are more accessible and it does not require as high a degree of technological knowledge to create as does a conventional nuclear bomb. The paper relates that, while not as destructive, a "dirty nuke" can create terror and destruction on a large scale.
From the Paper "As experts point out, there is a great fear in the public perception of radiation and if a "dirty nuke" is detonated in a city the danger of contamination would mean that the inhabitants would firstly have to be immediately evacuated. This leads to another important reason why the terrorists would use this type of bomb; namely, that large-scale evacuations are extremely costly. However, the greatest damage would be the psychological rather than the radioactive fallout."
Abstract This report investigates the effects of the nuclear reaction accident at Three Mile Island. It includes a chronology, a detailed description of the after affects, and highlights ways to prevent future disasters such as Three Mile Island. The author also examines the process that nuclear reactors use to harness nuclear energy, and describes the many types of reactors out there.
From the Paper "Three Mile Island? To many, those three words are associated with other words like "nuclear meltdown", "radioactive release", and ?damaged environment.? Many people know very little about how a nuclear reactor works, what kinds of nuclear reactors there are, exactly what happened at Three Mile Island, and how many dangers could have been prevented. The truths behind these ideas, and facts to back them up are all apparent in this paper."
