Abstract This paper discusses the development of quantummechanics, illustrating its background which began with the classical theory of the atom, continued to Bohr's simple atomic theory, and was developed further with de Broglie's wave theory, Heisenberg's uncertainty principle and Schrodinger's equation. To further investigate the development of quantummechanics, each of these stages are looked at in more detail, showing the main ideas that each stage added to the understanding of the atom. This paper shows that quantummechanics is based on the combination of the ideas of many scientists, with the final acceptance of quantum theory occurring when Schrodinger's equation tied together previous theories and allowed them to be applied to subatomic particles.
From the Paper "The classical theory of the atom is based on the model of an atom being made up of a positive nucleus containing protons and neutrons with negatively charged electrons orbiting around this nucleus. This model was first proposed by Rutherford in 1911 who described the atom saying, ?Most of the volume of the atom is empty space in which electrons move around the nucleus.? This basic model of the atom has been expanded on and used to determine how chemicals react with each other, the charges of chemicals and the physical properties of chemicals. While this has involved expanding the theory, the basic understanding of the structure remains the same."
Abstract This essay explains the basis of QuantumMechanic Theory of the atom, which describes the behavior of electrons in atoms & molecules. The author examines this theory and provides a detailed analysis of it.
From the Paper "The Quantum Mechanics Theory describes the behavior of electrons in atoms & molecules. Quantum Mechanics is also referred to as Wave Mechanics. The theory of quantum mechanics tells us that in the atom, electron waves are standing waves. This theory was devised by Max Planck in 1901. He stated that light is emitted by the atoms of a luminous body in separate packets or bundles of energy called quanta or photons. One or more of the electrons revolving about the nucleus of an atom can be made to jump from one orbit to another. As they do so one or more photons are emitted. This energy radiates from the luminous body as electromagnetic waves. The energy content of a photon determines the length and frequency of the wave. Wave mechanics views the probability of finding an electron at a given point in space."
Abstract This paper discusses quantum tunneling, which is a function of quantum-mechanical activity in the instance where a particle moves against potential energy and appears on the other side of the energy barrier. The paper describes the theory behind quantum tunneling. It focuses on the Esaki diode and looks at its potential uses now and in the future.
From the Paper "While the Esaki diode has not been widely used, its application is nearing widespread use in computers. The diode circuits have been developed and crash programs have been implemented by major computer makers in order to apply it to communications equipment. Yet there still is resistance to the use of these phenomenal little circuits, where currents may be reversed. Some designers and engineers prefer transistors. Proven circuits and solid-state technology that is already acceptable seem to be sufficient, they say. But interest in the diode is so great that they are being forced to try to apply this not-so-new technology to obtain ultra-high speed and ultra-low power consumption in the computer industry. The diode phenomenon dominated 1960 Physics Conferences."
Abstract This paper examines how, for many who lack a strong grounding in math and science, the two are often associated as being the same. The purpose of this paper is to define mathematics and science, showing them as two distinct fields of inquiry and then to show how advances in theoretical mathematics contribute the framework needed for scientists in the study of quantummechanics, a branch of physics, which in turn, is one of the many branches of science.
Outline
Introduction
Mathematics
Science
QuantumMechanics Mathematics and QuantumMechanics Science and QuantumMechanics
From the Paper "Finally, applied mathematics is a term loosely applied to a range of studies which have significant use in the sciences, specifically the empirical sciences, (branches of science open to practical or experiential experimenting). Applied mathematics makes use of numerical methods and computer science, seeking concrete solutions to explicit mathematical problems. In science and technology it has a major use as a way to model and/or simulate natural phenomenon or events. Examples include using mathematical models in computer generated wind tunnel tests to predict the behavior of a given shape of a prototype airplane wing without resorting to expensive actual wind tunnel testing."
Abstract This paper explores the metaphysics of Newtonian space-time, with the aim to discover the true meaning of Newton's three laws of motion. The common misconception is that the "universal" laws pertain to a universal and objective reality, whereas they pertain to nothing more than a certain method of setting up experiments, and this the paper aims to establish. It also shows how this throws light on the interpretation of quantummechanics, and then draws significant parallels between classical physics and the modern philosophy of existentialism.
From the Paper "Newton's laws of motion have a subtext that always escapes scrutiny at the first instance. This is Newtonian space-time, the metaphysical framework that underpins the laws. This framework consists of three spatial dimensions, chalked out as perpendicular to each other and emerging from a unique origin of coordinates. This is Cartesian space. If we add to this the extra dimension of linear time we obtain Newtonian space-time. The laws of motion make sense only when we assume them to be taking place in Newtonian space-time. And when we add the epithet "universal" to the three laws of motion then we have underhandedly made Newtonian space-time infinite in all 6 dimensional directions and have mapped this framework to reality."
Abstract This paper examines the concept and reality of transporter technology and teleportation. It discusses the background of the technology and looks at the problem of future quantummechanics, particularly in using the information to transport matter. The paper then discusses whether the problems can be solved and if they can, who should finance the investigations.
Table of Contents:
Executive Summary
Background information
Problem Statement
Assumptions
Analysis of Alternatives
Detailed Recommendation
Technology Roadmap
What is going to change because of it?
Where Is It Going?
What Will It Disrupt?
What Will It Replace?
Implications
Conclusion
From the Paper "Technology is still being developed for transporting information and objects, but possibly will never be available for transporting living beings. The teleporting of information is being utilized in space missions today and the ability to teleport matter is still being worked on, so that some day we may be able to transfer objects from one place to another by sending it from one "telepod" to another. But the reality is far from the imagination which created the concept of transporting humans instantaneously in the adventures filmed on 'Star Trek' decades ago, or in the film "The Fly," which was filmed in the 1950's."
Abstract The mechanical clock is one of the most common technologies in the Western world. The fact that the mechanical clock is so common means that many people have a difficult time believing that there have been periods of time in which the mechanical clock did not exist. In this bibliographic essay the origins of the mechanical clock are examined. The paper demonstrates that the mechanical clock did not simply spring into existence as a result of a single innovation. Instead the mechanical clock resulted from a number of technological and social developments.
Abstract This essay discusses how mechanical reproduction has resulted in the retreat from reality. The techno-formulation of reality, which is the mechanical reproduction of images, has served to change human perception. The problem of prime time television serves as an example of this reality, since it fosters graphic incoherence.
Abstract This paper explains that the author was presented with the problem of improving upon an already tried and true design, the mechanical pencil. The author describes both the form and function of his mechanical pencil design, which has been modified to include small LED lights at the tip of the pencil. The paper relates that this design was chosen to accommodate writers who are required to write or take notes in less than ideal lighting conditions, such as film reviewers or students. The paper includes three design sketches.
From the Paper "The purpose of this paper is to describe the form and function of a mechanical pencil design that the author devised when presented with the problem of how to improve upon an already tried and true design. After all, the pencil has been around for a long time, even the mechanical pencil. It is unlikely that any major plausible modifications that could be made haven't already been attempted or are already in existence. Nonetheless, it was my intention to make a design modification to the existing basic mechanical pencil in order to counter what this author perceived to be a major oversight with the design of the mechanical pencil. Too often, writers are faced with doing work in low-level light conditions, such as in darkened auditoriums during a presentation or during a film on which a reviewer might wish to take notes."
Abstract This paper shows that one of the main concerns in Chemical Mechanical Planarization processing is the material removal rate (MRR). The paper also critically reviews the existing MRR models of CMP and compares the assumptions, application aspects and limitations of the two groups? models.
From the Paper "Chemical Mechanical Planarization (CMP) is the process of surface smoothing and planing by a combination of mechanical action and chemical dissolution. This process is achieved by rubbing a work piece against a polishing pad under load in the presence of chemically active slurry containing an abrasive. CMP is one of the most effective planarization technologies for achieving smaller feature size for the integrated circuit (IC) industry. "
Abstract This study defines and describes the payment mechanism of the letter of credit, its usage and importance in international financing, as well as the contribution of this financial tool to the risk reduction in commercial and non-commercial transactions. This paper is concluded by the ending thoughts of the author regarding the above mentioned topic.
Outline:
Definition of the Term Letter of Credit
Importance in International Transactions
Letter of Credit Reduces Risk in Commercial Transactions
From the Paper "The letter of credit is used by many commercial players in the world market, especially for the individual advantages and benefits it brings. From the seller's point of view, the letter of credit promotes certainty that all the conditions mentioned in the import-export contract are integrally observed, within the established period and the amounts stipulated in the documentation. The Seller may also offer the buyer a supplier credit, having a specific financing method: the submitted documentation is discounted under the particular export letter of credit - in this way, the payment will be made by the payer's bank soon after the date of the shipment, and not on maturity like in the usual case. In case the exporter is an intermediary among an international transaction, it can transfer the letter of credit to other subcontractors, or can cede the encashment resulted from this particular payment instrument. The importer has the certainty that the payment is realized only if the shipment of merchandise is performed only in the stipulated conditions, as these conditions must be demonstrated using the documents submitted by the exporter."
Abstract This paper expounds the ?Theory of Everything,? starting with the pioneering theories of Newton's "Laws of Motion" and Einstein's ?General Theory of Relativity,? developing right through to the cutting-edge "string theory" research currently being conducted around the world today. It shows the importance of fields of study as seemingly diverse as calculus, differential geometry, electromagnetism, particle physics and quantummechanics to the development of a "Theory of Everything".
From the Paper "However, there is a fundamental discord between Einstein's "Theory of General Relativity" and quantum mechanics. Einstein saw the universe in four dimensions (the three dimensions of space plus time). The gravitational force that binds matter to the earth stems from this space-time continuum. Since quantum mechanic's subatomic particles only exist theoretically, they cannot be located in space-time and their motion can only be hypothesized. Thus, we have two theories that work individually but not together. There are also many unanswered questions. Relativity cannot tell us how the big bang created the universe or what black holes consist of. Similarly, quantum theory is not able to make order or sense of the assortment of miniscule matter it describes."
Abstract This paper introduces and explains several theories in physics, such as the M theory, string theory, quantummechanics, and general relativity theory. It presents them in layman's terms and explains how these theories all work (or don't work) together.
From the Paper "Quantum mechanics or the quantum field theory has worked well to describe the known behaviors and properties of particles of the Planck length or very small particles. General Relativity works with large objects like planets and galaxies. However the theories only works when one of the two theories can be neglected. General relativity has explained a lot about the universe, the evolution of stars, the orbits of planets, and best-known theory "the Big Bang". It also shows how black holes and gravitational forces work. However, the General relativity theory only works on its own and when we think of the universe in traditional matter because of the fact that quantum mechanics dose not comply the description of General Relativity. The two work well to explain the theories they were set up to explain however the do not work together. String theory was then conceived to explain the how Quantum Mechanics, the really small stuff, and General Relativity, the really large stuff, works together."
Abstract This paper examines the quest to understand the nature of light and presents it as the greatest scientific quest of all. It shows how breakthroughs in the understanding of light triggered vital advances in science as a whole. The field covered is from Epicurus of Samos in the fourth century B.C. to the quantummechanical understanding in the 20th century.
From the Paper "Science in the proper sense began in the eighth century within the Moslem sphere, and scientific experimentation became a refined process with the Cairene physicist Alhazen, whose primary subject of study was light. But the practice of science in the Moslem sphere was a short-lived explosion. After 300 years of fruitfulness there was a sudden abandonment of the whole thrust. The twelfth century Syrian mystic and polymath al-Ghazali initiated a comprehensive eradication of scientific endeavour from the sphere of Islam, something that can be said to have been achieved with finality within two centuries from the date of his death in 1111 AD."
Tags: dual, nature, electromagnetic, radiation, quantum, optics, Newton, Maxwell, Einstein
Abstract This paper examines how quantum cryptography is a fast growing form of encryption that is not based upon the difficulty of mathematical algorithms and instead employs quantum physics to encrypt information on the physical level. It emphasizes the need for an innovative cipher as well as the need to inform the IT community regarding the commercial application of quantum cryptography. It also provides a broad overview of the quantum cryptographic protocol and operation using fiber optic media.
From the Paper "The integrity of information between sender and receiver relies upon secure channels and more importantly the ability to protect the information from unauthorized recipients. The transmission of information can be compromised when a third party listens in on the transmission media measuring the physical object. Consequently, the eavesdropper can effectively intercept the contents of a communication. Certain types of classical cryptography have proven vulnerable to the interception of data and the incident can remain undetected during the entire transmission. This idea of a man-in-the-middle attack on communication media using quantum cryptography is not possible due to the laws of quantum mechanics. Quantum superposition's and quantum entanglement are two properties of quantum physics used to detect eavesdropping. "
