Abstract Discusses the historical origins of the agency's legislative powers and duets, its operations and impact, the FDA's power over the approval or rejection of a new drug or device, and the life or death consequences if approval is delayed.
From the Paper "This research paper summarizes and discusses the role of the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in the regulation of health, the historical origins of its legislative powers and duties, its operations and their ..."
This paper reviews four fundamentally different intellectual traditions and offers input as to where the "public administration" of the U.S. is in 2003.
Abstract This paper introduces the issue of public administration and then discusses four major theories of public administration: the Hamiltonian Tradition, the Jeffersonian Tradition, the Madisonian Tradition, and Wilsonian Tradition. The paper then compares these traditions and provides an analysis of the traditions and today's U.S. executive administration.
From the Paper "Alexander Hamilton's insistence on a strong executive branch was not based solely on his desire to push his own philosophy of public administration on the young nation. He had seen the failure of the Articles of Confederation in its attempt to solidify the country; states quarreled about everything before ratifying the Articles, and some even went out on a limb and had their own foreign policy. States couldn?t agree on paying for a national army, nor on taxation and spending. Hamilton's balancing act was, how does the country create an executive "powerful enough to make the government strong" (Kettl, page 30) and yet how does the country prevent a concentration of too much authority and power in the White House? Hamilton had plenty of experience in executive decision-making, as he was the very first treasury secretary in the nation; and it was his authorship of documents on public credit, national banking, and manufacturing that later formed the basis of the executive branch of national government."
Abstract This paper explains that the debate over African nations refusing U.S. GM food aid encompasses a much larger scope than the Western debate over GM foods. The author points out that, not only must African nations consider the same human health and environmental implications of GM food as their Western counterparts, but also African countries must negotiate a minefield of political and economic concerns unique to the region. The paper states that the debate surrounding GM foods in Africa must take into consideration some uniquely African problems, including Africa's desperate need to feed its large population and the relative poverty of the African nations.
Table of Contents
Introduction
Background to Genetically Modified Foods and Food Aid
Arguments Supporting Genetically Modified Foods
Arguments against Genetically Modified Foods
The Pros and Cons of Genetically Modified Food Aid
Conclusion
From the Paper "Later reports noted that Zambia's decision was influenced strongly by the UK-based BMA's fears about the spread of antibiotic resistance genes in FM foods to bacteria, and the potential for GM foods to cause allergies. Supporters of GM foods argue that the Zambia's decision was based on bad advice from the BMA. For example, the South African head of AfricaBio notes, "The American Medical Association backs GM food, as does the Royal Society in Britain, the Third World Academy of Sciences and the Food and Agriculture Organization". "
Abstract Historically, the availability of water in South Africa has always been a problem, and this problem is mainly attributed to its geographical and climatic conditions. This paper explains that, out of the 40 million people of South Africa, 40% are deprived of the appropriate supplies of drinking water. Both urban and rural settlements are dependent on the scarce distribution of water resources by the state. It discusses how the state, on the other hand, has granted the distribution of the water supplies to a foreign company and has led to an increasing, ultimate deprivation of the water supplies for the poor, who had to choose between bread and water. It explains how this selection led to the outburst of cholera back in the year 2000, killing 300 people and infecting more than a quarter of million people.
From the Paper "In the year 2000, Suez Lyonnaise Des Eaux, a French company, took over the majority of the water supplies in South Africa, and with this French company many other multinationals have also flown in to reap the profits like Vivendi, Saur and Biwater. It is a norm with privatization that state subsidies are reduced and the prices of the utilities goes up. The majority to suffer from the privatization reform is the general public and the poor. This is because the private companies operate under the motive of profit generation rather than the welfare of the public. This profit motive has resulted, in this case, in a four hundred percent increase in the prices of water in South Africa. Where the people who could not afford to "buy" the water were dumped in to intense levels of poverty and the ones who could afford had to tolerate a more expensive standard of living. Poor, for whom it was even hard to live under a tin roof, were the majority of the sufferers. There were many incidents of aggression against the privatization policy and many incidents of breaking the water pipe lines for search of water. However, such aggression was conveniently dealt with force (Gleick et al., 2002)."
Abstract This paper looks at how, as more and more people of different races and cultures enter the United States, and how, as the ethnic composition of the country changes, immigration becomes a more intensely debated issue. It examines how some Americans favor tighter immigration restrictions and argue that immigrants take jobs away from U.S. citizens, drain social services, and resist learning English, and how others, however, point to America's historic commitment to immigration and believe that immigrants keep the nation strong, economically competitive, and culturally rich. It provides a timeline of policies from the purchase of Ellis Island in 1808 to the 1994 Proposition 167 in California, which would deny illegal aliens all public social services, public non-emergency health care based on financial needs, and public education.
From the Paper "During the later part of the twentieth century, U.S. immigration policy has addressed specific modern-day problems. In some instances, the federal government has set limits on the number of immigrants"who fall into certain classifications, such as refugee"who are allowed to reside in the country. The Refugee Act of 1980 legally defined a refugee as someone who flees a country because of persecution "on account of race, religion, nationality, membership in a particular social group, or political opinion" (U.S. Immigration Policy 1995). The act allows the president to admit refugees in a time of emergency and also places a limit on the number of refugees allowed to enter."
Tags: aliens, ellis, island, refugees, restrictions
Abstract This paper discusses that, if management is the process of achieving specific tasks through specific means in specific time frames with a set of predetermined resources, then to achieve this level of management, measuring the progress is essential. The author points out that, to serve the needs of a community, a government needs to rise above the lack of market-based accountability and to set itself standards and performance benchmarks by which it will operate and to which it will hold itself accountable. The paper demonstrates that, by placing information in front of the public, the London Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea government is committing itself to accountability to the people it serves, a valuable step for a government body.
From the Paper "The ideas of performance management through performance measurement have been the backbone of private enterprise for decades. Without measuring performance, a company will quickly be replaced in the marketplace by its competitors. However, in the last decade, as business has shifted into a digitally enhanced production and performance environment, the idea of performance measurement has become even more important. The digital business age has created new competitive forces, which force businesses to review their business activity more frequently. In reality, a company must be in constant review of its progress toward stated goals while at the same time determining new goals and adopting processed to implement the new goals if they are to stay competitive."
Abstract This paper discusses how it is an irrefutable fact that the American medical care system is in the midst of an immense and complicated state of crisis and how this crisis is multifaceted, carrying with it not only financial, but ethical and political implications as well. It shows how the degrees to which Americans are affected by this crisis vary greatly and how the current widespread problem leaves virtually no American unscathed. It argues that, while America is said to lead the world in medical research and its ability to treat and cure some of the most complex and deadly illnesses, it lags behind every other industrialized nation in the world in guaranteeing all of its people access to the best that medical care has to offer.
From the Paper "Nearly 44 million Americans are without any form of health insurance. This is a figure that includes people of all ages, income levels, and ethnic backgrounds. Contrary to popular belief, "uninsured" does not necessarily connote ?unemployed,? as approximately 80% of the uninsured population is currently under part-time or full-time employment (Hayashi, 2004). Furthermore, Americans are losing their health care plans at an astoundingly rapid rate. In the year 2002 alone, approximately 2.4 million Americans lost their health care. This number signifies the largest increase in more than ten years (Washington Post, 2003-a). To make matters worse, health insurance premiums increased by an astonishing 13.9 percent between 2002 and 2003. This has been the highest observed increase in over a decade."
Abstract Health care in the United States has a long history; from the traveling physician who provided services in private homes and charity organizations, to government programs such as Medicare and Medicaid that proceeded hospital construction, and the relatively recent trend of managed health care. Along the way, innovation and competition facilitated new health care technologies and services that offered numerous approaches to prevention, treatment, and management of diseases. In a bold new health care policy, integration and collaboration between the public and private sectors of health care is not only an option, but a necessity in providing the most efficient and sound health care services and options. This paper examines health care in the U.S. from a historical and current perspective and concludes by introducing a new model of managed health care utilizing a systems approach.
Table of Contents
Introduction
Historical Examination of Health Care
Public Sector Health Care in the USA
Private Sector Health Care in the USA
Types of Managed Care Organizations
HMO Models
The Merging of Public and Private Health Care Models
A New Universal Managed Health Care Model
Conclusions
References
Appendices
From the Paper "The managed health care industry did slow the growth in health care spending. Moreover, by extending coverage to services provided in an outpatient setting, it reversed the artificial preference for in-patient care that was created by indemnity insurance benefit designs. By focusing on clinical variability in physician practices, the shift to managed care forced the elimination of some unnecessary care. It also provided a stabilizing force to professional fees and institutional charges."
Abstract Although the United States has one of the safest public water supplies in the world, it needs ongoing protection from both naturally-occurring and man-made contaminants. This paper discusses the public health history and current issues in water safety. The paper looks at what caused the United States to set standards for its public water supply, as well as the laws and statutes which were formulated. The paper also examines what the future holds and whether the United States' water supply is as safe as we think it is.
From the Paper "In March of 2001, the Bush Administration suspended the 1996 Amendments to the SWDA. They rejected the arsenic safety standards. In a highly controversial situation, after severe public heat and political backlash, in October 2001, the Bush Administration finally conceded to the 10 ppb value. However, during the suspension, the administration required new studies to be carried out, suggesting the earlier research was inadequate. As Senator Barbara Boxer (D-CA) stated, ?It came back and bit them in the arsenic.? In September 2001, studies by the National Academy of Sciences completed their new studies on arsenic exposure. Their new study stated that even 10 ppb is too high and recommended lowering the standard to 3 ppb in order to protect the public health."
This paper discusses the New Deal, a set of federal policies targeted at welfare relief and economic development during the administration President Franklin Roosevelt, and its effect on African-Americans.
Abstract This paper explains that the Roosevelts were promoters of human rights and racial equality; thus, part of the goal of the New Deal was to promote racial equality by creating federal agencies to help ease discrimination against African-Americans and to create economic opportunities for the advancement of black citizens. The author points out that, despite their status as free Americans and the general economic prosperity that occurred in the 1920s, African-Americans were still far from being treated as full citizens; therefore, for many black families in the 1930s, the difficulties spawned by the Great Depression magnified already existing forms of inequitable treatment. The paper concludes that, even though the promises of the New Deal engendered hope in the African-American population, which was desperate for social and political change, studies show that the New Deal fell far short of its goal of promoting racial equality.
Table of Contents
African Americans and the Depression
The Promises of the New Deal
After the New Deal
Conclusion
From the Paper "This mass migration, however, led to growing racial tensions in the cities. Unemployed whites felt that they should have first priority for the few factory jobs that were available. Many desperate white workers also began taking jobs as janitors and street sweepers -- positions that were formerly reserved for African Americans. This contributed further to the displacement of African Americans from the paid labor force. Furthermore, while limited financial aid was available, white families had priority for any unemployment assistance."
Abstract In a "Washington Post" article entitled "House Passes Major Tax Cut for Businesses", author Jonathan Weisman discusses the public policy issue of corporate tax cuts. The public policy described is at a development stage and reflects what is largely a federal issue. The policy is criticized for potentially having a direct conflict with public health policies on smoking. This paper explains that stakeholders are diverse and include American businesses, special interest groups, and residents of several states with no current income tax. Government departments directly involved in the policy are the House of Representatives and the Senate. The paper shows that ,overall, critics argue that the policy results in financial costs and support of special interest agendas, although the policy supports good government by addressing the policy issue of European Union export subsidy sanctions.
From the Paper "Overall, the policy has drawn criticism that it reflects poor public policy. Notes Weisman, "the main criticism focused on the special-interest provisions secured by business lobbyists." Further, criticism has also focused on potentially increased costs of the bill beyond the $153 billion cut in business taxes over 10 years. Critics argue that extension of other tax breaks and the phasing in of other tax breaks will make the final toll much higher. Potentially, critics argue that the total cost of the House bill could be $260 billion."
Abstract Merit pay for teachers is an issue that has been debated since the beginning of the 20th century. This paper explains how the experts are still on both sides of the fence with regard to the effectiveness of performance-based pay in the educational system. The writer points out that much of the debate still continues because the data is lacking and what is available is inconclusive. Though the debate still continues, it is possible to tie teacher compensation to classroom performance. Not only can merit pay be implemented in the educational system, but also it should be; teachers need to be accountable for their performance. It concludes that merit pay holds teachers accountable and increases student achievement.
From the Paper "Education is a cornerstone in a free and democratic society. In the United States of today, improving student achievement is a major concern. One way many educators and administrators believe will improve student achievement is through improving teachers? performance. In 1908 in Newton, Massachusetts the idea of merit pay was introduced as a way to improve teacher performance and thereby increase student achievement (Collins, introduction). That idea has been maintained into the 21st century and continues to be a topic of much debate."
Tags: appraisal, compensation, evaluation, performance, public, salary, school
Abstract This paper analyzes the responsibilities of the Federal Reserve Board, claiming that its most important responsibility is the stabilization of the economy by regulating financial markets. The paper contends that the frequent and usually well-planned hikes and cuts in fund rates are indicative of the Federal Reserve Board's power and influence on the American economy.
From the Paper "The Federal Reserve Board is the most powerful financial institution in the country and is actually the Central bank of United States. This institution is responsible for regulating financial system of the country by formulating monetary policies and by changing the fund rates. The Fed is not completely independent and works together with the administration and the Department of the Treasury. It is responsible for formulating and implementing monetary policies in the United States. Even though not independent Federal Reserve has the power to single-handedly introduce appropriate regulations and changes in order to control the financial markets. Federal Bank is commonly referred to as the Fed and it has lately been in the news quite consistently and persistently. The headline-making monetary measures have made the public take notice of the way monetary system works in the United States."
This paper discusses the Federal Reserve Board, a primary part of the Federal Reserve System of the United States and its effect on the economy of the United States.
Abstract The paper explains that, in 1913, the Federal Reserve System, an integral part of the United States economy, was created by the Federal Reserve Act to deter the periods of financial panics, which were occurring in the United States. The author points out that managing the nation's monetary policy is the most important responsibility of the Board of Governors. The Board has three tools to conduct monetary policy: open market operations, reserve requirements, and the discount rate. The paper relates that the increase in the federal funds rate is the Federal Reserve's way of controlling inflation because, by raising the cost of borrowing money when there is too much money in circulation, the Federal Reserve's intention is to slow the economy down.
Table of Contents
Introduction
History
The Federal Reserve Board
Responsibilities of the Federal Reserve Board
The Fed and the United States Economy Today
Conclusion
From the Paper "The Federal Reserve Board was established as a federal government agency and is the governing element of the Federal Reserve System. The Federal Reserve Board, or the "Board of Governors," is made up of seven members who are appointed by the President and confirmed by the Senate. Once confirmed by the Senate, the length of a term for a Board member is four-teen years. No Board member may be reappointed to the board. Every four years a new Chairman and Vice Chairman are also appointed by the President and confirmed by the Senate."
Abstract This paper examines how America's forefathers had the right idea in wanting to educate Americans and rid the great country of ignorance. It looks at how policy makers have since attempted to draw up the best way to make sure education is a success in America and how the No Child Left Behind Act is just another milestone in the public education system. It examines the debate on whether it is helpful and puts forward the author's opinion that, while the NCLB is a good start for reform for American schools, perhaps it is time for it to be fully revised to ensure that, truly, no child is left behind.
From the Paper "Politicians have used the school system as a political issue to gain support for their election. Most recently President George W. Bush was elected into office by a nation that fully knew his beliefs on the education system. Bush was first the governor of Texas and his ability to turn around the school system in that state gave hope to presidential voters in 2000. The testing scores in Texas were brought up as was the graduation rate. Yearly testing became the norm to ensure that no student was left behind to not be able to complete the basic educational skills needed to survive in the American job market."
