Abstract This paper offers an explanation of Erik Erikson's work, titled "Identity and the Life Cycle". The paper outlines the ways in which the human ego develops in the context of social and cultural realities and is divided into three major sections. "Identity and the Life Cycle" explains ego development and historical change as a function of the specific space and time in which an individual is born.
From the Paper "At the outset of "Identity and the Life Cycle", Erikson distances himself from Sigmund Freud. On page 18, the author criticizes specifically the "artificial differentiation" between the individual within the family and the individual within the mass of society. While Freud overly focused on familial issues and influences on the budding child ego, Erikson takes this one step further and claims that the individual's perception of socio-cultural realities are equally as significant. It is impossible, according to Erikson, to differentiate between familial and cultural or historical influences; individuals and families do not exist in isolation from the group in which they are formed."
Abstract Discusses the increase in number of grandparents taking on the roles of primary caregivers for grandchildren. Examines the reasons for this trend and the physical, emotional, mental, and economic affects on grandparents.
From the Paper "Grandparents resuming the role of parents of young children is a growing phenomenon today, with grandparents raising their grandchildren in the absence of the biological parents. Although many grandparents have always informally cared for their grandchild..."
Abstract Examines its purpose to influence consumers to purchase certain products and services rather than others. Discusses the four main components of classical conditioning and considers classical conditioning as a form of learning and behavioral change.
From the Paper "The use of classical conditioning in advertising has long been used as a means for those who sell products and services to influence consumers to purchase from them instead of competitors."
Abstract Examines the purpose of performance improvement and high-quality performance. Examines differences in research motivation in relation to athletic performance. Considers the need achievement model, intrinsic motivation, and the goal theory model.
From the Paper "How can coaches motivate athletes to perform to the best of their ability? The review of literature presented here attempts to answer this question by examining salient research. All studies examined ..."
Abstract Examines self determination theory (SDT), intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation, external (rewards), introjected (avoid anxiety), and identified (personal values). Discusses expectancy theory and Cognitive Evaluation Theory (CET).
From the Paper "Motivation is at the center of biological, cognitive and social regulation, and its importance lies in the consequences of the actions its promotes (Ryan and Deci, 2000). Motivation is of primary concern to anyone in a teaching or managerial position ..."
Abstract This paper discusses heroin, a powerful, highly addictive drug that is derived from opium, which was first synthesized from morphine in the 1890s and was initially considered to be an effective pain killer and cough suppressant. It looks at how its manufacture and sale is now illegal in most countries because of its widespread abuse and habit-forming qualities and focuses on the long-term and short-term, harmful effects on the human body.
From the Paper "In the longer term, the heroin user becomes totally dependent on the drug until his whole life revolves around the effort to get the next ?fix.? Other long term psychological effects of heroin include loss of enthusiasm and involvement in everyday affairs, withdrawal from hobbies and sports, reluctance to make new friends, irritability and overreaction to criticism, sudden changes in mood and compulsive lying. A heroin user goes to great lengths to deny that he is a drug abuser. Devious and manipulative behavior aimed at getting money for supporting the drug is also a typical long term effect of heroin. Distorted perception, hallucinations, and paranoia are the other long-term psychological effects of heroin."
Abstract This paper details that five of Erikson's stages line up roughly with Freud's theory of human development, though they expand upon them and take much of the focus away from sex. The other three Erikson stages follow the continued course of an individual's psychological life, something that Freud seemed to think terminates at early adulthood. The author believes that, while Freud's work should be honored for its daring and its groundbreaking nature, Erikson's is a more realistic and complete model. The paper continues that Erikson appears less committed than Freud to the idea that all dreams are a form of wish fulfillment and tends to read a more symbolic nature into them.
From the Paper "The first stage of development according to Freud is the "Oral" stage. This stage lasts between one and two years, and during it the child's needs are most focuses around oral pleasure such as that derived from nursing or sucking. A child who is frustrated at this stage (not fed sufficiently, for example, or not allowed to breastfeed) will have a variety of future development problems stemming from his oral nature and characterized by sarcasm, envy, suspicion, and pessimistic ideas about the world and relationships."
Abstract This paper explains that the theories of the causality of alcoholism have changed dramatically over the last fifty years from being a learned behavior to being genetic. But now, the pendulum is slowly swinging back to viewing alcoholism as a learned behavior, with some element of genetic predisposition to the condition. The author points out that, if alcoholism is a learned behavior, it would, in fact, influence the way in which social workers treat alcoholics and their families. The paper concludes that research insists on addressing the issue of alcoholism as a complex one that, in all likelihood, includes genetic, behavioral, social, and psychological elements.
From the Paper "A number of researchers have investigated the question of whether or not alcoholism has a genetic component and, if so, how powerful that component is. This literature review summarizes some of the most recent research in this area. In general, researchers have found that there is a genetic element to alcoholism but that this element is not as important as the learned-behavior element of alcoholism. Research, such as that performed by Dawes et.al. (1999), reinforces the fact that even highly dysfunctional behavior can be learned."
Abstract After a general outline of sleep and what happens while we are sleeping, this paper goes on to discuss the body's biological need for sleep, the sleeping problem known as insomnia, and how it can affect one's health. The paper also looks at some possible causes of insomnia and how it can be treated.
From the Paper "We spend about one third of our life sleeping. Sleep is defined as the suspension of consciousness during which the powers of the body are restored (ThinkQuest, 2003). The brain is not at rest during sleep as popularly thought, but is extremely active and it is the brain that tells us when it is time to sleep. Sensations of light taken in from the retina are transferred through the nerves to an area of the brain determines the amount of light exposure and adjusts the body accordingly. The exact purpose of sleep remains a mystery, but researchers speculate that during certain stages of sleep, the brain is testing, strengthening, or somehow improving our neurons."
Abstract When an adolescent experiences some sort of disruption of the family structure, due to either divorce or some other means of disorder, a distorted view of the marital structure sometimes arises. This paper examines the effects of broken families on adolescents, examining issues such as the child's own future relationships, behavioral problems, substance abuse, and juvenile delinquency.
From the Paper "Consequently, not every adolescent who lives in a dysfunctional home is taking their parents to court to try and milk them for everything they are worth. Yet, even if one looks at the extreme, a minute characteristic can be identified that can applied to many adolescents in that situation. The predominant cry heard is not one for money or power, rather it is merely an internalization of emotion caused by an adolescent feeling he or she is the victim."
Abstract Researchers have begun to explore the effects on children of witnessing domestic violence and have noted that children who experience such events often show significant behavioral or emotional problems, either immediately afterwards or later on in life. This paper looks at the history of the issue, focusing on the United States. It then examines statistics, the effects on children, including PTSD and expected problems in later life. Finally, the paper looks at treatment and therapy options.
From the Paper "Some parents noted that their lives were already so complicated by the upheaval that they simply did not have the time to get the children into therapy. One mother noted that she had already missed so much time from work dealing with the legal aspects of the violence that she could take no more time off to take children to therapy. Other parents didn?t think their children needed any help, and in some cases the child did not want to participate. Many parents gave more than one reason (Peled & Edleson, 1999) suggesting that providing therapy for these children is a complex problem to solve. One subset of parents had shared custody of their children and thus incomplete control over their activities (Peled & Edleson, 1999)."
Abstract One of the most fruitful methods for studying the comparative influences of nature and nurture has been to study twins. In the groundbreaking 1979 Minnesota Study of Twins Reared Apart, researches attempted to answer many of these questions. Twins, because of their identical genetic make-up, present a unique situation for viewing these sorts of results. The paper shows that this study found that genetics do play a much larger role in defining our characteristics than we might have previously suspected. It discusses the study's findings that intelligence, in particular, was affected by genes to a high degree, a fact that many found surprising.
From the Paper "In biology, we could test which traits are the result of the "genotype" and which are the results of "phenotype" by employing such a study. It is easy to do this with physical characteristics, but what might such a study say about the way personalities develops, or other elements, such as intelligence or violent propensities?"
Abstract This paper argues that television viewing by children should be greatly restricted, not only because of the negative affects of watching television in general, but also because the advertising media is actively seeking ways to influence children. The paper examines various aspects of advertising aimed at children, including brand loyalty, in-school programming, and food advertising. It also touches on violence and sex-role stereotyping.
From the Paper "According to some research, while psychology often provides valuable insights about controlling obesity, psychologists are also often on the payroll of the junk food advertisers, informing those advertisers about the best way to reach a child's mind with the message they intend to get across. In addition to that, there is also the ?nag factor,? in which children are encouraged to bug their parents until they get what they have just been convinced they want, disrupting family dynamics in the process. (Cohn, 13) It could be argued that disrupted family dynamics would also lead to additional work for psychologists. And it could be argued that none of this serves the children very well at all. Of course, one might wonder who needs parents or psychologists when one has Ronald McDonald."
Abstract Anorexia nervosa is a serious, often chronic, and life-threatening eating disorder. The paper first outlines the four major categories of risk factors associated with disordered eating: biological, psychological, familial and socio-cultural. It then looks at the effects, both physically and emotionally, of the disease on the patient.
From the Paper "In the early to middle stages of anorexia the body attempts to conserve energy as the body loses weight, and this leads to associated complications. In order to conserve energy the body shuts down other functions and young women may stop menstruating. Other dangerous aspects are that in the process of compensating for weight loss, the body also slows down the heart rate with a subsequent fall in blood pressure. This means that heart problems might result in the anorexic patient."
Abstract This paper argues that it is time to re-think the homework debate and focus our attention on how educators can make homework a more valued part of the learning process. With all of its potential positive outcomes, educators must find ways to make homework an interesting and challenging educational experience for students. The paper includes graphs and tables. It takes on a Canadian perspective.
Paper Outline:
Defining Homework (including types)
Arguments for Homework
Arguments against Homework
Designing Quality Homework Programs
Works Cited
From the Paper "If teachers are not careful when assigning homework the effects can become detrimental to both students? learning and their attitudes towards education. Some of the main arguments against homework are as follows: Students don?t get enough sleep; they are tired the next day of school, becoming stressed and anxious about their education (Caston & Penrose, 2003). Secondly, homework limits the time that students can spend with their family and friends, and the time parents do spend doing homework with their children can result in tension and fights. Asking children to sit down and do homework at an early age may be developmentally inappropriate and therefore counterproductive."
