Abstract It is the contention of this paper that the standardized SATs, intended as a tool to help predict a student's collegiate potential, fail to meet this objective. Instead, the exams often misrepresent or portray a potential student in a negative light because of the cultural bias of the test. The paper asserts that this is especially true for the African-American and Latino American population. Experts in the fields of education and social sciences are quoted, and data is presented that supports the author's contention. Other problems that are considered intrinsic to the SAT are also covered in this paper.
From the Paper "Today's educational system supports tests such as the SAT?s, which are often biased against minority students. The SAT's were developed by the Educational Testing Service as a means to predict successful collegiate performance. However, the tests in actuality seldom accurately predict the potential for a student's success. The SAT's have statistically in fact, been shown to have little value in predicting a student's future performance. They also negatively impact admissions representative's perceptions of a student's potential for academic success. The SAT's have also been shown to negatively impact minority groups, specifically African Americans, Hispanics and even low-income white students. The tests more accurately are a predictor of socioeconomic influences than a student's potential, and unwittingly favor middle and upper class students, who often have the opportunity to prepare and memorize for such tests, placing them at a disadvantage over their peers."
Abstract This paper researches the diagnosis of Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder in children. It begins by examining the characteristics of the disorder and then discusses what causes OCD. The paper also explores different treatment options, as well as prevention methods.
From the Paper "Obsessive - Compulsive Disorder (OCD) is classified as an anxiety disorder. By definition, anxiety disorders are "psychological disorders characterized by distressing, persistent anxiety or maladaptive behaviors that reduce anxiety" (Myers, 2001, p. 557). In the case of OCD, it falls under the categories of both persistent anxiety and behaviors used to reduce this anxiety. Obsessive - Compulsive Disorder consists of two main behaviors: obsessions and compulsions. Obsessions are "recurring, unwanted thoughts, ideas, and impulses that interrupt normal thinking, cause anxiety or fear, and will not go away" (The Cleveland Clinic [TCC], 2002). Compulsions are "behaviors or rituals that are repeated intentionally to try to control the obsessions" (TCC, 2002). This disorder usually manifests in childhood or early adolescence, and occurs equally in men and women, and in people of all different races and socioeconomic backgrounds. Currently, this disorder affects approximately 3.3 million adults and over 1 million children and adolescents in the United States (TCC, 2002). The review of this disorder will focus on four different aspects: 1. Diagnosis and characteristics of the disorder; 2. Causes of the disorder; 3. Treatment of the disorder; 4. Prevention and outlook of the disorder."
Abstract Discusses the origin and development of the test, its content, administration and scoring, practical utility, and statistical properties. Compares Stanford-Binet to Wechsler scales. Examines standardization and normative problems and the I.Q. score.
From the Paper "This paper will review the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale - IV. Content, administration and scoring, practical utility, and statistical properties will be presented. In addition, the test will be compared to a similar measure and ..."
Abstract This paper studies the issues regarding the integration of religious beliefs into counseling. The paper looks at the benefits of a spiritual and religious approach to counseling, why this approach has been neglected for so long, the negative consequences that can occur when spirituality is not part of the counseling framework, and the ethical challenges posed to the integration of religion and spirituality into counseling. The paper also describes ways in which spirituality and religion can be integrated into the therapeutic process and highlights what is most beneficial about each approach.
From the Paper "The complexities involved with psychology and the Christian faith are complicated. John Carter, author of The Integration of Psychology and Theology, states that some Christians embrace psychology for answers to problems that are not clearly defined in scripture. In addition, they also look outside the church because they church may only offer such solutions as more prayer and a more committed Christian walk, but "certainly not psychotherapy" (1979 Carter 12). In addition, pastors encounter a similar impasse for not being able to provide answers that relate to a deeper understanding of human psychology. Some pastors may even fear being ?disloyal to God and his word,? which may create anxiety. This anxiety adds to the complexity of the problems associated with introducing religion into psychology."
Abstract This paper discusses how, in the field of criminology, some hold that criminal behavior is socially (nurture) influenced, while others are of the opinion that genetics (nature) play a more substantial role than socialization. It looks at how the literature shows that a genetic predisposition largely determines the environment the individual would choose for most of his or her activities and how other elements of environment, such as peer groups, for example, are also chosen by the individual according to genetic disposition.
Outline
Adopted Children and Twins
Environmental Factors
The Role of Nature
Conclusion
From the Paper "Twin studies are however inconclusive, and it is difficult to determine the exact amount of nature and nurture that play a role in criminal tendencies. (Gale Encyclopedia of Psychology, 2001.) While there are definite similarities that correlate more closely than those between fraternal twins, identical twins have also shown differences, even when raised in the same environment. Here it is possible that small differences in genetic make-up dictate that each twin reacts differently to environmental factors, and thus develop differently, although with the same basic genetic make-up. It is however also true that many twins separated at birth develop startling similarities, which is then ascribed to genetics. Differences in these cases are ascribed to the environment in which each grows up."
Abstract This paper looks at how raising children is a not an easy job and how one of the most difficult parts is finding the most efficient way to punish a child. It explores the topic of disciplining children by the parents, including a discussion on whether or not corporal punishment is right or wrong in both the home and school setting. It also gives alternatives to corporal punishment, such as positive reinforcement, as well as information that suggests that spanking isn't that harmful to a child.
From the Paper "Corporal punishment is a touchy subject no matter how you look at it. Some people believe that it is a necessary part of life, while others believe that it needs to be banned in the United States. The definition of corporal punishment as stated in the Encyclopedia Britannica is ?the infliction of physical pain upon a person's body as punishment for a crime or infraction.? (Britannica .com) It goes on to state ?the term also denotes physical disciplining of children in the schools and at home.? The use of corporal punishment in home and school has been widely debated. So parents have the difficult decision in how they will punish their children inside their own home and they also have to worry about how their child's teacher or school official will discipline them."
Abstract This paper attempts to define what exactly a dream is, whether it is a story that evolves in the mind in a single flash of inspiration, moving from beginning to end in a few seconds, or whether there more to it than mere fantasy. It examines how many researchers, both past and present, have given numerous definitions for what dreams are and how they can be interpreted.
Outline
The Mechanics of Dreaming
The Sleep Cycle
Body Dynamics
The Healing Power of Dreams
Dream Deprivation
The Meaning of Dreams
From the Paper "Thanks to these dream researchers, it is now known that there is a regular cycle of sleeping and dreaming during each period of sleep. For most people, a night of sleep begins with certain rituals; sleep then is supposed to come in an instant. Within the first few minutes, the temperature of the body falls, and brain waves begin their regular alpha rhythms, indicating a relaxed state. In Stage One, the muscles lose their tension, breathing becomes more even, and the heart rate slows. In Stage Two, random or nonsensical image may float through the mind, mimicking the dream state. In Stage Three, the body continues its process of slowing down; the muscles lose all tightness, breaths come slowly and rhythmically, the heart rate decreases and blood pressure falls. In Stage Four, the body and the mind are at their most restful periods and may last for many hours."
Abstract This paper explains that, instead of getting the work done by any means possible, the servant leader is required to first take into account the welfare of his staff and of all those who help him achieve the primary goal of the organization. The author points out that the concept goes well beyond the corporate world and can be incorporated into other fields, such as politics, education, and law. The paper relates that servant leadership works on principles opposite to those incorporated by a traditional leadership style; in traditional leadership, a leader is required to "control" his employees and exercises his authority frequently to get the tasks done.
From the Paper "Servant leadership works on the principle that a leader is there to take care of his people. He is required to act like a king who builds his entire empire on the principles of trust and care. Servant leadership literature, for this reason, focuses on everything from Jesus and Bible to modern-day management theories to explain the significance of this kind of leadership. This is obvious from close reading of Spears? book and the essays it contains. Contributors like Steven Covey and Max Depree have focuses on the moral side of the issue while Ken Blanchard, Margaret Wheatley and Warren Bennis discuss the issue from purely management standpoint. In their own unique way, all contributors sought to highlight the flaws of traditional leadership and the positive effects of this new leadership style."
Abstract This paper briefly discusses the nature-versus-nurture debate as it pertains to serial killers. Using examples of several of the most notorious serial killers, this paper examines whether they may have had common backgrounds and upbringing (nurture) that led them to kill, or whether it was something inbred (nature).
From the Paper "In looking at past serial killers, one must ask themselves what possessed them to do what they did? What made this man go over the edge and on a violent killing spree? For years people have tried to discern what the motivation behind this was. Some of the more mentally insane killers are a bit harder to piece the puzzle together for the mere fact that even if they divulge information about their life, it is entirely possible/probable that they are lying. People like Charles Manson, Jeffrey Dahmer, John Wayne Gacy, and Richard Ramirez are the subjects of debate in psychology, criminology, as well as certain history classes. These criminals have shared many of the same experiences as children but it appears that common fears along with external forces have driven them to their very morbid paths."
Abstract This paper examines how numerous theories have been advanced about the causes of criminal behavior ever since criminology became a serious subject of study in the late 18th century. It looks at how, although most of these theories give us some insight into the mind of criminals and why they commit crimes, there is still no consensus among the experts about most of the reasons advanced to explain the committing of crimes. It explores some of these theories of criminal behavior, including a discussion of serial killers and the possible reasons behind their deviant behavior.
Outline
Background
Classical Criminology
Lombroso's Theory of the 'Criminal Type'
Modern Biological Theories of Criminal Behavior
Psychological Theories
Social Causes
Opportunity Theory
Serial Killers
Conclusion
From the Paper "Serial Killers are the "ultimate criminals" since they are responsible for committing the most heinous of crimes, i.e., of taking another human's life without legitimate cause, perform the dastardly act repeatedly and usually derive pleasure by doing so. It is, therefore, instructive to briefly look at their behavior pattern as it gives us a useful insight into the functioning of the criminal mind. Studies made by FBI reveal that serial killers fall into two fairly distinct categories: the "organized" and the ?disorganized.? (Reed, "Specialists look"?) The organized killer is usually male, white and fairly intelligent, socially adept and ordinary looking who can easily blend into the background. He plans his crimes with great detail, leaving very little evidence behind."
Abstract Psychologists have researched personality disorders and have formulated different theories, presenting their own reasoning as established via comprehensive research over a lifetime. This paper examines similarities and contrasts between the psychoanalytical theory of Sigmund Freud and social cognition theory of Carl Rogers. It explains that they are both recognized figures in the field of psychoanalysis and that both the theories are logical and applicable in varied circumstances.
From the Paper "Sigmund Freud was a one of the most eminent psychologists of all times. Freud is termed as the father of psychoanalysis. His theory of psychoanalysis entails the conscious and the unconscious. The conscious is what we are aware of like one's present perceptions, memories, thoughts, feelings etc. The unconscious is the memory that can be easily recalled. However, these entail the smaller part of the mind, the larger part consists of the unconscious, which includes all the things that are not easily available to the conscious mind. These include our drives and instincts."
Abstract While a divorce may be devastating or relieving to a couple, children are frightened and confused by the terrible threat to their security. This paper explains, however, that if a child feels secure and loved throughout the divorce, he or she may not be harmed by the divorce at all. Reflecting on these concerns, this paper determine the effects of divorce on children.
From the Paper "For centuries, the family has an essential institution, evolving from humans' co-dependent tendencies and need for nurturing relationships (Snowdon, 2000). The family unit lays the foundation for an individuals future, having the power to influence either positively or negatively. An important part of human development and relationships, family can provide a loving and nurturing environment. However, when the family is disrupted, it can have a negative effect on the individual's self-esteem and method of relating to others. In this light, the family is a major determining factor in the outcome of a person's success and happiness in life."
Abstract This paper presents a detailed examination of the Bowen Family System Therapy model. The writer explores the Bowen theory and how it began, as well as the uses it still has today. It explains that the theory is based in the belief that the relationships between family members have a significant impact on the total family unit.
From the Paper "The field of psychology has been an ever changing field since its inception. Therapists and theorists are constantly scrambling to locate the most effective therapy models possible for the purpose of assisting their clients. One of the most important aspects to any mental health issue is the family dynamic. Whether the children are in crisis, the parents, or someone outside of the immediate family that impacts the family, the fact remains that family cohesiveness is paramount to living well emotionally. The Bowen Family System Therapy model of family counseling has been used for many years as a preferred method for the treatment of the entire family."
Abstract This paper explains that the major theorists of learning are: J.B. Watson and J.F. Skinner, behaviorists; Jean Piaget, cognitive theorist; Leo Vygotsky, social theorist; Albert Bandura, social learning theorist; and more recently, George Miller, the theory of information processing. The author points out that children's natural curiosity to learn helped psychologists realize that learning was more than just developing observable behavior and that it did involve thinking processes. The paper relates that the information processing theory likens the human to a computer; information taken in by the senses is stored in short-term memory and put into long-term memory only if this information is used and practiced.
From the Paper "Piaget observed many children and concluded that cognitive development proceeds through certain stages. He believed that children learned by a gradual process of looking, listening and touching. He postulated that children build their own maps or schemes with the information they take in through these senses. These maps or schemes help them to understand and respond to their environment and get more sophisticated as the child grows and develops. So the child in an experience, takes in information, makes his own sense of it, responds to the situation and stores the map. In future experiences he builds on these maps with the new present information and comes up with a new response to match the present situation."
Abstract This paper analyzes four theories for motivation that deserve considerable focus, including the Hierarchy Theory by A. Maslow, the Acquired Needs Theory by D. McClelland, the Two-Factor Theory by F. Hertzberg, and the ERG Theory by C. Alderfer. The paper uses an example of a fictitious company, XYZ, in order to discuss which of the types of theories listed above would be most effective in motivating each of the three employee groups of XYZ company, salespeople, production workers, and the administrative staff.
From the Paper "As we move into the twenty-first century, companies will need to draw on the full creative energy and talent of their people. But what tools can company directors use to best mine these resources from its employees? Organizations today are in a constant battle with their competition for talented employees. This makes issues such as how to motivate and retain staff very important. As research and corporate experience has found, financial rewards, such as large salaries, are not always a successful method of bringing about the prolonged motivation of employees. Companies need to become more creative if they want to retain their staff and keep them motivated."
