Abstract This paper examines how the book, "Democracy in America" by Alexis de Tocqueville, considers the phenomenon of democracy as it manifests itself in the United States. It looks at how, apart from legislative authority, democracy carries with it certain dangers that, if not properly dealt with, will result in despotism by the majority.
Outline
The Love for Equality
Individualism
Materialism
The Preservation of Liberty in the Face of Democracy
Association and Press
Religion
De Tocqueville's Relevance
From the Paper "The main premise for this argument include the sovereignty of the people and the power of public opinion. De Tocqueville sensibly argues that equality precludes the importance of any one person's rule over another, since nobody can claim to be more important than any other. However, to establish order in society, a certain rulership has to be established. The only way to achieve this is by the rulership of the majority, which then can lead to despotism. This happens by means of tyranny of the majority. Because everybody is seen as equal, no opinion is more important than any other. Thus, the opinion of the majority is in effect adhered to, in order to satisfy the majority. A further implication of equality is that the minority, being equal to the majority, has not right to disagree with the majority, as this implies that such an opinion is more important than that of the majority. This is the basis of despotism; that the minority is helpless to resist the general opinion, and thus liberty is undermined."
Abstract This paper discusses the minimum wage and, in particular, why it does not work in America today. It looks at how the federal minimum wage was created to ensure American workers received adequate and fair wages during the Great Depression, when jobs were scarce and wages were abysmally low and how, today, the federal minimum wage stirs controversy and ire in many areas of American politics and business. It evaluates how the federal minimum wage has served its usefulness and how many believe there are now better ways to ensure workers receive adequate wages.
From the Paper "Along with job loss, raising the minimum wage can also have severe affects in many other areas of the American economy. A rising minimum wage can make it more difficult for people to return to the workforce from welfare, and it can encourage high-school students to drop out, as many studies have shown, including this one: "Minimum wage jobs are often thought of as 'entry-level' jobs. The evidence in our data supports this view. Among the workers earning the minimum wage in the second year of our panels, 39.4% were not employed in the prior year" (Even & Macpherson, 2003, 676). This seems to support the theory that many high school and college-aged young people are leaving school for jobs."
Provides an overview of United Nations policy formulation and policy implementation in the context of international public administration organizations.
Abstract This paper examines, through a literature review, instances of policies that were developed and not effectively carried out, as well as recent requirements for the formulation of policies put into place at the UN. It looks at how a sustained public information campaign is extremely important for the success of the UN's attempt to reinvent its system of policy formulation and policy implementation due to all the "bad news", including terrorism and war and AIDS, etc., dominating the TV and print news agencies.
From the Paper "There are myriad examples of the UN's good work ? in many and diverse areas where there are desperate human needs throughout the world ? and also, on the other hand, there is no shortage of evidence that some policies, although they were drawn up with the best of intentions, failed in their mission, or were thwarted either through no direct fault of the UN, or because the UN's policy implementation could not match the promises in the policy formulation. One example of the apparent failure of a policy which was to be implemented was recently reported by the British Medical Journal (Tayal, 2003). The journal claimed that a UN policy designed to tackle the health and human rights needs of "indigenous people" ? a policy which was formulated in 1995 ? has not been very effective in its implementation."
Abstract This paper briefly discusses how, despite the fact that they work, many Americans live below the poverty line. It examines the social implications of such a phenomenon and discusses the measures the government needs to take to reverse this trend.
From the Paper "There are many reasons to be concerned about the working poor. First of all, the majority of the working poor live in families with children, so their poverty is affecting others, as well (Marlene, 1999). Also, studies show that working poverty is probably much more widespread than the official count of nine million Americans cited (Boushey, 2001). The label "poor" describes anyone whose family income falls below the government's official poverty level, which in 1999 was $16,700 for a family of four and $13,880 for a family of three. However, many experts believe that the official poverty level is too low. Thus, it is believed that more than 30 million Americans reside in families that fall below self-sufficiency, even though at least one family member is employed full time."
This paper examines the evolution and evaluation of the exclusionary rule from its origins in the 1789 Virginia Bill of Rights to the modern landmark case of Mapp v. Ohio.
Abstract This paper explains that the exclusionary rule falls under the province of the Fourth Amendment of the Constitution, which protects citizens against unreasonable searches and seizures from agents of the state; and upon which the Supreme Court ruled in 1914 that any evidence obtained in unlawfully or illegally was inadmissible as evidence during a trial. The author reviews important cases that have shaped the scope and spirit of the exclusionary rule, such as Leon v. United States and Vernonia v. Acton. The paper studies criticisms against the exclusionary rule, including arguments that by letting criminals get their cases dismissed on technicalities, the exclusionary rule subverts the justice system.
Table of Contents
Definitions of the Exclusionary Rule
History of the Exclusionary Rule
Boyd v. United States
Weeks v. United States
Wolf v. Colorado
Mapp v. Ohio
Exclusions to the Exclusionary Rule
Criticisms of the Exclusionary Rule
Arguments in Defense of the Exclusionary Rule
Alternatives to the Exclusionary rule
Conclusion
From the Paper "One of Madison's proposals was based on the Virginia law against general search warrants. Thus, the proposed Bill of Rights included a provision to guarantee citizens protection against unreasonable searchers and seizures, a provision that eventually formed the foundation for the Fourth Amendment. Furthermore, Madison also pushed for a clause protecting people from becoming witnesses against themselves. Madison and his supporters were concerned over previous practices in Church tribunals, where confessions extracted through torture were then used against a defendant in Court. This clause in turn formed the basis of the modern Constitution's Fifth Amendment."
This paper discusses the old Iraqi government, the interim government that is currently in place, and the government that will be in place in Iraq following the war there.
Abstract This paper explains that Saddam Hussein's main goals were to increase Iraq's territory and to ensure that Saddam Hussein stayed in power for as long as possible. The author points out that the main enemies of the interim government in Iraq are political groups within Iraq that disagree with how the country is being redeveloped and managed. The paper stresses that the aim of both the interim and the new governments will have to be economic growth as their main short-term concern and economic stability as a long-term aim.
From the Paper "In terms of the main threats to the interim/future governments of Iraq, there will be from people within Iraq, and within the Middle East, who disagree with America's involvement and who do not like the government that is put in place. (It is to be remembered that Iraq, like Afghanistan, is made up of many distinct tribes, divided according to religion, and that, as such, it will be extremely difficult to pleas everyone. The world has to be prepared for what will happen when these groups begin to vent their anger at what has happened in Iraq. In terms of addressing these threats, the people behind the organization of the interim/future governments will have to tread a difficult path and to reach a compromise solution, which is sufficiently to everyone's liking as to avoid such potential conflicts."
This paper reviews four fundamentally different intellectual traditions and offers input as to where the "public administration" of the U.S. is in 2003.
Abstract This paper introduces the issue of public administration and then discusses four major theories of public administration: the Hamiltonian Tradition, the Jeffersonian Tradition, the Madisonian Tradition, and Wilsonian Tradition. The paper then compares these traditions and provides an analysis of the traditions and today's U.S. executive administration.
From the Paper "Alexander Hamilton's insistence on a strong executive branch was not based solely on his desire to push his own philosophy of public administration on the young nation. He had seen the failure of the Articles of Confederation in its attempt to solidify the country; states quarreled about everything before ratifying the Articles, and some even went out on a limb and had their own foreign policy. States couldn?t agree on paying for a national army, nor on taxation and spending. Hamilton's balancing act was, how does the country create an executive "powerful enough to make the government strong" (Kettl, page 30) and yet how does the country prevent a concentration of too much authority and power in the White House? Hamilton had plenty of experience in executive decision-making, as he was the very first treasury secretary in the nation; and it was his authorship of documents on public credit, national banking, and manufacturing that later formed the basis of the executive branch of national government."
Abstract This paper discusses the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), which was was introduced in 1994. It examines how, before and after its introduction, there were many concerns that it would be harmful and not helpful and how, despite these concerns, it was introduced. It looks at how, almost ten years later, it appears that the NAFTA has been a big success. While there are also some negatives, the benefits are so great that the few problems are minor. It considers NAFTA to show where it came from, what it achieves, and what benefits it has provided.
Outline
First Stages of the North American Free Trade Agreement
An Overview of the North American Free Trade Agreement
A Brief History of the North American Free Trade Agreement
The Successes of the North American Free Trade Agreement
Economic Benefits
Manufacturers
Agriculture
Benefits for all Businesses
Global Trading
Environment
Labor
Consumers
Conclusion
From the Paper "The NAFTA began in 1990 when President George Bush announced that one of the government's goals was to establish a free trade zone for the Americas. At this time, free trade agreements had been created in other parts of the world for some time. The European Free Trade Association (EFTA) was created in 1960 and had been working on creating a European free trade zone since then. The Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) was created in 1967 and had been working on creating free trade zones across Asia since then. In 1990, this was giving European and Asian countries an advantage that America did not have. This resulted in Bush's plan to create a North American trade zone."
Abstract This paper examines the health care system of Germany from the time of the reunification of East and West Germany to the present. It looks at the admirable services, quality, and extensive coverage Germany has managed to provide its citizens under a socialized form of health care, while avoiding all the pitfalls of socialized medicine. The paper also examines some of the pressures the system is now facing and the reasons for this pressure and looks at the debate regarding how much coverage Germany should be obligated to provide its citizens.
From the Paper "In 1949, when the occupying armies of the Allies left the region that had been the German nation, two states were created, Communist-bloc East Germany, and a western-friendly democracy, West Germany. In 1961, the East Germany government erected a wall in Berlin to keep East Germans from becoming West Germans. The wall, a hated symbol but also a real wedge into German culture and society, stood until 1989. Suddenly, in the spring and summer of that year, there was an exodus of East German citizens through embassies in Poland, Hungary and Czechoslovakia. In early October, there were unheard-of public demonstrations against the East German government in Berlin and Leipzig."
Abstract This paper discusses how the Vietnam War was devastating to many people for many reasons and how many individuals have expressed the torment that the victims of the Vietnam War experienced through writing, photography, and motion pictures. It examines some of these works, such as Tim O'Brien's "The Things They Carried", and the movie, "Dear America: Letters Home From Vietnam", and shows how these personal experiences help us relate to the weight of the war, as well as understand the scope of the war's reach.
From the Paper "The image "What They Carried" also makes a powerful statement about the war. The first thing we notice is that the soldier is missing one leg and it appears that both of his arms have been broken. The image is black and white, which adds to the dramatic mood of the image. The man looks confused and tired as he stands in a metropolis (New York perhaps) under a cloudy sky. What is striking about the image is that it focuses on one soldier out of hundreds of thousands who fought in Vietnam. We can see how the soldier feels isolated and abandoned by his country. We cannot help but think of each individual life that was effected by the war and how displaced those who returned must have felt--especially those who were wounded."
Abstract This paper looks at how assumptions made about the Cold War by U.S. policy makers in the 1940s and 1950s affected U.S. relations with Latin American countries. The paper then proceeds to evaluate the validity of those Cold War assumptions.
From the Paper "During the 1940s and the 1950s, U.S. foreign policy makers were faced with an unprecedented and unexpected threat from the Soviet Union. Because of this threat, this period of U.S. History became known as ?The Cold War.? ?For a time early in 1945, it seemed possible that a lasting friendship might develop between the United States and the Soviet Union based on their wartime cooperation.? The Soviet ally whom the United States had relied upon during World War II had metamorphosed into a danger to U.S. international security, rather than a friend. The USSR's influence, by the end of the 1940s, had spread across Eastern Europe and threatened Western Europe. The United States began to see communism itself as an infection, spawned by Stalin, rather than as a complex ideology. U.S. policy makers feared that communism, which they equated with Soviet foreign influence, could spread anywhere around the globe where revolution might be fermenting."
Abstract This paper begins by discussing the origins of the Social Security policy. It then looks at the economic conditions at the time of imposition and discusses the reforms in the welfare system.
From the Paper "Social Security came into existence in 1935. The economic conditions of the United States surrounding that era drove the existence of a social welfare body. The main objective of forming Social Security was to provide benefits to the elderly. These benefits included not only financial support but spanned to physical and mental health, accommodation, employment opportunities and access to community services. These were the core objectives of the Social Security Service in the past."
Abstract This paper discusses the crises on the Korean Peninsula, focusing on the tension caused by North Korea as a result of its conducting a nuclear weapons program. The paper also illustrates the conditions that led to the critical condition on the Korean peninsula. This paper also highlights the reaction of countries, such as the United States, China, Japan, and South Korea towards North Korea's nuclear weapons development.
From the Paper "While the United States worries about the deadly nuclear weapons created by North Korea, South Korea on the other hand is perturbed about North Korea's economic conditions and the possibility of troop demobilization on both sides of the Demilitarized Zone. North Korea posses the following problems to the international communities, namely its determination to follow its own path to development renders the society nearly impervious to foreign advice and assistance. The array of institutions and processes which have been available to most other developing countries has been largely rejected by Pyongyang."
Abstract This essay discusses the U.S. foreign policy towards Middle Eastern and Latin American countries before 9/11 and post 9/11. The foreign policy is analyzed, its inherent problems are highlighted, and a comparison of U.S. foreign policy towards the Middle East with U.S. foreign policy towards Latin America is made.
From the Paper "With all eyes turned toward Iraq and the Middle East, South America rarely makes the headlines in the United States. Except for perhaps tighter controls and security on U.S. borders and waterways since September 11th , it seems Latin foreign policies are not top priorities for Washington. However, recent events in October in Bolivia led to "a massive mobilization of Indians and peasants"military crackdowns that left as many as 70 people dead"and led to the demise of the conservative Gonzalo S"nchez de Lozada government on Oct."
Tags: homeland, security, act, immigration, policies, state, department, interests, democracy, arab, world, anean, region
Abstract In developing their theory of government, both Hobbes and Locke start with a theoretical state of nature. As opposed to using concepts resulting from religion and divinity, this paper explains that both use nature as the basis to arrive at their respective conclusions. It compares the difference between the two theorists, as they lie in their ideas of the nature of man and how a man conducts himself in the state of nature. Although both talk of a social contract while developing their respective ideas of government, Hobbes favors monarchy. The writer first discusses the concepts within each thinker's theory and then discusses the principal advantages and disadvantages of Locke's and Hobbes's social contract, stating which theory the writer believes to be the best.
From the Paper "Hobbes is a product of the scientific revolution (a.k.a modern science), which was the point at which information (proof) was gathered to conclude facts rather than relying on the old book and religion. As a result, Hobbes attempts to answer questions as a scientist. There is debate on the methods he used, more specifically the atomic method. For example, ?people are the atoms of society.? In order to understand how people work, we must break the people down, put them back together to form the society, and then we will understand. Another example is the "Ring of Gyges". Gyges put the ring on his finger and he becomes invisible. If he turns one way he is invisible and turning the other way he becomes visible. The story ends by Gyges sneaking into the queen's room, sleeping with her, and then he kills the king. The story exemplifies the ability to do anything that a person wants without ethical consequences. If a human being had the power to do anything they wanted without having to suffer from the possible consequences, they would use it to their advantage. According to Hobbes, humans seek to maximize. Psychological Egoism states that people always act to maximize their self-interest. Furthermore, we help other people because we believe it will help or strengthen our own self-interests. Altruism states that people are capable of compromising their own interest for the interest of other: risking your life for others. Egoist would run into a building on fire to save a person because they want to feel good about themselves or be recognized as a hero not necessarily for the welfare of that individual. Hobbes rejects Altruism all together."
