Abstract Nineteenth century British philosopher John Stuart Mill was the most important proponent of utilitarianism, a theory of morality for determining the rightness or wrongness of any action. This paper looks at Mill's 1863 book "Utilitarianism" in which he codified the principles of utilitarianism. The paper shows that Mill's principle of utility is helpful in distinguishing the rightness or wrongness of an action from the motives of the actor or agent. This principle of utility led Mill to support liberal feminism which he saw as morally right because allowing women the chance to make intellectual contributions to society promoted happiness for the greater number of people.
From the Paper "People who sought to prohibit women from working may have had good motives, based on their religious beliefs or their fear of introducing social disorder. However, according to Mill, the result of these prohibitive actions was that society lost the potential contributions of educated women. Mill believed that the harm created by denying women's contributions to art and science far outweighed any potential good that resulted from maintaining the status quo. When judged by the principle of utility, the subjugation of women was thus a morally indefensible attitude that failed to promote the higher good. Despite their supposed good motives, people who fought against women's rights engaged in morally wrong actions."
Abstract This paper provides a scientific definition of stem cell research and explains how the process scientists wishing to extract the stem cells for research purposes. It then looks at the history of the controversy surrounding this form of research, by looking at laws and legislation passed by government committees over the past few decades. The moral arguments against this research are then presented and finally the stance for stem cell research is provided. The great scientific advantages are listed as well as the unlimited potential for cures and medical development.
From the Paper "The current restrictions on stem cell research in the United States hinder potential medical breakthroughs through the use of this technology. While opponents of genetic engineering and stem cell technologies make important points about the potential ethical consequences, the potential medical therapeutically value of such technologies is clearly undeniable."
Tags: ethics, moral, science, genetic, medical, potential, cure, government, law
Abstract This paper discusses the issues involved in racial profiling as possibly the only way to prevent terrorism. The difficult and uncomfortable aspect of racial profiling, which puts a large population of innocent citizens under scrutiny, is explained. The paper presents the hope that when certain communities are targeted as a result of racial profiling, there will be cooperation from within the community to assist the officials.
From the Paper "While some may say that this violates civil liberties, Attorney General John Ashcroft says, "We're not sacrificing civil liberties, we're securing civil liberties?That's why the administration has claimed the unilateral power to designate any one of us a terrorist and subject to indefinite detention without a trial--or even knowledge of the charges against us. That's why it conducts secret searches of libraries and bookstores and who knows who's offices or computers: It wants to protect our liberty (Kaminer, 9). The communities affected by racial profiling will, certainly, experience discomfort. The fact is that the vast majority of Middle Eastern Americans and Middle Eastern students and visitors are of absolutely no threat to the United States in any way."
Abstract This paper is a proposal for a research study which will attempt to examine the evidence that supports the motives of the terrorist organizations around the world to conduct terrorism on a global basis. It outlines how the study will be exploratory in nature, primarily through various government reports and reports of Embassy's around the world and how the research will explore a number of terrorism incidents, their patterns, the major groups involved, financing connections and the use of improved communications as a means to coordinate attacks. It encompasses terrorism data from 1992 through the year 2002.
Outline:
Abstract
Chapter 1
Introduction
Rationale for Study
Scope of Study
Thesis and Research Objectives
Chapter 2
Review of the Literature
Overview of Preliminary Research
Chapter 3
Methods
Chapter Four
Findings
Timeline
Works Cited
From the Paper "Terrorism is politically motivated violence against persons who are not combatants in a conflict. Americans have always been targeted while in other countries, but on September 11, 2001, they also became the direct recipients of terrorist activities. The goal of these activities is to promote a sense of fear and deep insecurity. Terrorists strike those who are not combat ready. The victims are nor trained soldiers, they are ordinary citizens. These attacks often come without warning, in an attempt to invoke the greatest amount of fear (Wilcox, 1996). Terrorism attempts to undermine the citizen's faith in their government's ability to protect them. Terrorists use intimidation as their primary weapon to induce fear in a society."
Abstract This paper evaluates the cost of terrorism from a global perspective. The writer examines the cost of terrorism, specifically those of September 11th. He then evaluates other terrorist threats that currently exist around the world and defends the United States? current position on pre-emptive attacks on nations deemed supporters of terrorism.
From the Paper "Economic costs of terrorism pail in comparison to the loss of human life. However, economic hardships that have been sustained as a result of terrorism are very real as well. The cost of the Word Trade Centers and surrounding buildings was over 21 billions dollars. That cost ends up being paid by the various companies that insured the twin towers. As a result of such large claims placed against them, many insurers are raising rates. Specifically, high-risk facilities such as Seattle's Space Needle and the Empire State Building may face insurance premiums hikes of over 50%. This raises the aggregate cost of doing business for the firms and individuals who own those buildings. Therefore, as insurers raise rates for all commercial properties rise, we expect to see a reduction in expansion rates for new office buildings. It may be difficult for firms to find and pay for highly desirable urban office space in the near future if this trend continues."
Abstract This paper explains that the American failures in Cuba and Vietnam in the 1960s were due in large part to the fear, arrogance and ignorance of Cold War containment policies that developed in the aftermath of World War II. The author believes that the problem was the assumption that all political and economic reform movements in Third World nations were not indigenous but were inspired instead by the evil Communist leaders of the Soviet Union. The author states that once this Cold War policy was in effect, no leader of the U.S. had the courage, wisdom or political independence to try to alter fully that policy.
From the Paper "Kennedy certainly entered office under the pall of the same Cold War ideology and its containment policy, as evidenced by his "missile gap" rhetoric, his increase of advisors in Vietnam, and the Bay of Pigs invasion of Cuba. It will never be known whether he would have averted a war in Vietnam, but his test-ban treaty with the Soviets, his denunciation of the CIA after the Bay of Pigs disaster, and his plan to withdraw some troops from Vietnam indicate at least a willingness to consider more flexibility in that policy."
Tags: containment, soviet, war, indigenous, kennedy
Abstract John Locke wrote at a time of social unrest and questioning, at a time when the long-standing sovereignty of kings as ordained by God was being questioned. Locke did not see the power of kings as derived from the will of God but rather as developing as the result of some social condition. The paper shows that Locke asked first what state man would be in if there were no government and he found that human beings originated in the state of nature, the state that existed before human beings came together to form a society and a government. It shows that Locke saw this state of nature as placing the individual into a state of perfect freedom, with no necessity to ask any other person before determining his or her own actions or disposing of their own property. Property was an essential element in Locke's thinking, with the relationship of the individual to his property as being of paramount importance. The paper shows that the ownership of property was seen as a fundamental right, meaning that it was a right born in the state of nature. For Locke, the defense of individual liberty is inseparable from the defense of private property.
From the Paper "The individual in society does not have absolute freedom, showing that something has been lost from the state of nature. Locke sees human beings as having agreed to give up certain rights and powers through some form of agreement. Society is thus formed when men cede certain powers to a central authority. Private property rights are to be protected by this state that has been created--human beings have given up certain rights in order to assure the protection of their property from the depredations of others. Locke traces the concept of private property from the time when God gave the world to Adam and his posterity. Locke sees political power as being "for the regulating and preserving of property" (Locke 4), among other things."
Abstract Both Mary Wollstonecraft and Karl Marx developed ideas about the way society is formed and the way it should be formed and both did so in economic and social terms. The paper shows that there are considerable differences between the views they take on these topics. Each wanted to change society and each examined the nature of their society and determined what sorts of developments should be taken in the future. The paper examines Wollstonecraft's "Vindication of the Rights of Woman" (1792) and Karl Marx's class theory.
From the Paper "Marx and Engels do not speak of individuals as a rule but rather of classes, mass grouping of people according to economic and social position. In the perspective of Marx and Engels, the bourgeois society in which they lived was a system of class conflict and the domination of the bourgeois class over the proletarian class. They described the nature of this society not as an aberration but as a stage in social evolution, succeeding the feudal period and preceding the era of the dictatorship of the proletariat. This view was based on the idea that these stages were inevitable and that the only way for the proletariat to gain a better position in life was through revolution, through the violent overthrow of bourgeois society."
Abstract This essay first outlines Locke's argument in Book II of "The Essay Concerning Human Understanding", illustrating the distinction between ideas of primary qualities and ideas of secondary qualities. The writer then examines the arguments of Berkeley in "A Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge" against this distinction and against the possibility of matter.
From the Paper "According to Locke there are two types of qualities found in bodies. First are the primary qualities of bodies, which are "utterly inseparable from the body, in what state soever it may be" (E., p. 502). To Locke, a primary quality exists independently of observation in every piece of matter within a body, regardless of the size of that piece: "division. . . only makes two or more distinct separate masses of matter of that which was one before" (E., p. 502). Therefore, primary qualities include the unchanging, mind-independent qualities of a body such as figure, motion or rest, number, extension, and solidity or impenetrability. Conversely, secondary qualities of bodies are "nothing in the objects themselves but powers to produce various sensations in us by their primary qualities" (E., p. 502). This power is attributable to the "bulk, figure, texture, and motion of their insensible parts" (E., p. 502)."
Tags: knowledge, independence, qualities, power, human
Abstract A recent study showed that nine out of every ten blacks (91 percent) who live to 75 years of age will have experienced poverty for at least one year during their lifetime, compared with only 50% of whites. Many of the children living in poverty in America are the children of African-American families headed by single females. This paper reviews the current literature on the social problem of poverty and single African American females.
From the Paper "Despite this gloomy assessment of poverty among Blacks, reports on the poverty rates among Blacks and Hispanics (Black poverty, 1998; Simms, 1998; Wilson, 1987) showed that there was a continued decline in the poverty rates. They indicated that the number of poor Blacks had dropped by 600,000 to 9.1 million as the poverty rate dropped from 28.4 percent to 26.5 percent in 1997, down from a staggering 35.7 percent in 1983. These numbers drove down the overall poverty rate for Americans from 13.7 percent in 1996 to 13.3 percent, according to the Census Bureau's annual income and poverty report."
Abstract The topic examined in this dissertation is that people who exercise power and control tend to be operating at the lowest stages of moral development. Specifically, the focus of the dissertation is on low-level exercisers of power, political officials or activists who serve in positions on city councils, community boards or organizational boards. The paper includes a comprehensive review of the literature on the subject as well.
Contents:
Contents of a Literature Review
Power and Control Theory
The Power-Elite Theory and the Pluralist Model
Legitimate Exercise of Power, Control and Authority
Theories of Moral Development
Positive Exercise of Power
References
From the Paper "Generally, sociologists suggest that two alternative models of identifying how power and control in American society have been proposed. Power, as defined by Weber (1946) is the probability of realizing one's goals even against the opposition of others. At the societal level, from a functional perspective, power is the ability to govern and maintain order within the group. From the conflict perspective, power is typically analyzed in terms of the capacity of a social class to realize its objectives (Hess, Markson, & Stein, 1989). Power is a crucial aspect of relationships between people and among groups, often studied within the context of authority."
Abstract A detailed comparison of the Articles of Confederation effective between 1781-1788 and its replacement, the U.S Constitution. The author discusses the need to replace the Articles of Confederation with the constitution and then analyzes these constitutions point by point finding that the number of differences are more than the number of commonalities.
From the Paper "The United States has worked under two constitutions. The first was the "The Articles of Confederation" which was ratified by Maryland, and was effective from March 1, 1781 till June 21, 1788. The second was ? The Constitution?, which replaced the Articles of Confederation when New Hampshire upheld it. A day, which changed the history of the Americans, is July 4, 1776. This is the day on which the members of the Second Continental congress signed the Declaration of Independence, which is not very commonly known but has its own importance. It is on this date the September 17, 1787 on which the constitution was signed. So it is this Constitution that actually founded the government that we are familiar with today. But surely there was a government in the years in-between."
Tags: declaration, government, comparison, history
This paper discusses the belief that school vouchers are a means for the private schools to promote fundamentalist and discriminatory educational systems.
Abstract A critical examination of the school voucher system and how it is a means to reject equal opportunity in education systems. The writer shows how although school vouchers on their own are an important concept for school development, within the dimension of the present day education system, it is not feasible to implement it unless the whole education legislature changes.
From the Paper "State legislature provides that school vouchers are to support the poor students in private sector schooling. They have the freedom to choose the program that reflects their education future. However, in reality, school vouchers account for sectarian education which dominates private schooling. Poverty stricken students comprise of only 20 percent of the private schools. After the decision of Brown vs. Board of Education, school vouchers merely became a means for white students to choose a different schooling system for themselves. Hence, school vouchers use to eradicate discrimination proved unsuccessful [Molnar, 1996]."
Abstract This paper discusses how the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001 have caused numerous changes in criminal policies. It examines three of those effects ? the expanded powers of the President and Attorney General, new policies that could affect local policing and concerns about infringements on civil rights and liberties. It looks at how these policies have relaxed the restrictions on federal and law-enforcement authorities, giving them greater latitude in activities like search and seizure, eavesdropping and the detention of suspected criminals. It also shows how civil rights groups have also expressed concern that such measures are unconstitutional.
From the Paper "On the downside, some cities have seen an increase in crime rates as a direct result of the terrorist attacks. Generally, the extent of law enforcement authority varies with the nature and size of the criminal environment faced by the police. The terrorist attacks have greatly raised demands on law enforcement in New York and Washington, DC. In other places, police manpower has been diverted towards activities relating to homeland security. These include guarding public events and places as well as responding to reports of possible terrorist threats. As a result of this drain, some cities have seen a corresponding increase in theft and homicide (Stuntz)."
Tags: 9/11, law-enforcement, criminal, policies, president
Abstract In "The Lost Children of Wilder", reporter Nina Bernstein examines the failures, disasters and tragedies that continue to plague New York City's foster care system. The paper shows that to do this, Bernstein tells two stories. The first details the history of New York City's child welfare system, a system that has been ineffective and mired in bureaucracy for the past 100 years. The second story focuses on the lives of Shirley Wilder and her son Lamont, two generations of children who have both been failed by a chaotic foster care system that refuses to reform.
From the Paper "To read The Lost Children of Wilder is an experience in frustration with the seemingly-endless loop of child welfare. The only solution appears to be increasing public funding to the city's shelter system and to mothers like Shirley, so they are in a better position to raise and educate their children. Critics may point out that women like Shirley should not be mothers. However, Bernstein's narrative leads me to believe that rushing children to foster care has much direr consequences, both for Lamont and eventually, the rest of society (who will eventually shoulder an average of $500,000 per child in foster care). After all, it is in everyone's best interests to ensure that all children receive a positive upbringing, with access to education, medical care and physical well being."
Tags: racial, disparities, Justine, Wise, Polier, juvenile, hall, Legal, Aid
