This paper presents a step-by-step description of the various stages in the creation of nuclear power, beginning with a description of atomic particles through the creation of nuclear fission.
1,575 words (approx. 6.3 pages), 5 sources, 1983, $ 55.95
From the Paper "Atoms are the basis of matter. At the center of the atom, unchanged by the physical and chemical transformations of the whole, the nucleus is found. The nucleus is comprised of protons, positive particles, and neutrons, uncharged particles of the same mass. Since the nucleus is positively charged, the protons repel one another. Despite this negative attraction, a short-range nuclear force holds them together. This has been described as an "immensely powerful short-range attractive force acting equally between the protons and the neutrons" or as a "new kind of short-lived nuclear particle, called meson". Whichever image is used, this force holds the nucleus together. Lighter nuclei, containing fewer numbers of protons and neutrons in equal number are more stable than heavier nuclei, which require more neutrons than ... "
From the Paper "Nuclear power is no longer a relatively new phenomenon which impacts both on culture and society. Since the early 1960s, companies have searched for an inexpensive way in which to generate power for the increasingly demanding American society. Indeed, the debate over nuclear power shows just how much the illusions of the nuclear age are "rooted in the economic and political institutions of our society. The system for threatening nuclear war - the designing, making, deploying, explaining of nuclear weapons - serves so many short-term interests that as a society we are crippled in confronting out most basic interest: physical, economic and spiritual survival".
In the 1980s, however, nuclear power has become an even greater political issue that has been thrust into national, and ... "
This paper reviews the potentialities of solar energy as an alternative fuel and discusses the need for federal funding into research and development of the relevant technologies.
2,250 words (approx. 9 pages), 8 sources, 1991, $ 79.95
From the Paper "U.S. energy policy is a matter of ongoing concern. Our society makes use of massive amounts of energy of various types, and the need for energy is growing. Energy policy is tied to a number of other policies, from the economic to foreign affairs. The costs of energy have an impact on every aspect of society, and energy policy relates to foreign affairs in that the dependence of America on foreign energy sources creates a situation whereby the nation can be held hostage to the whims of external powers. In such an atmosphere, more and more concern has been raised that the United States discover a source of renewable energy, something that will not be depleted as will fossil fuels, something that is cleaner and safer for the environment than are fossil fuels, and something that is still economically viable, producing sufficient energy at a cost ... "
From the Paper "The purpose of this paper is to discuss the development of the steam engine, one of the most important inventions of the English Industrial Revolution.
The steam engine was the culmination, not quite the product of the Industrial Revolution. ... described all the components and principles of a practical steam engine in 1690. Thomas Savery built a steam-driven pump in 1698. Thomas Newcomen developed this (1708-12) into a machine in which steam generated by heated water was condensed by a jet of cold water, and the alternation of atmospheric pressure drove a piston up and down; this "atmospheric engine, remained the standard until James Watt transformed it into a true steam engine in 1765.
Unlike most of the inventors of his time, Watt was a student .. , "
From the Paper "Water has been used to generate power for thousands of years. The use of water to generate electricity is a relatively new phenomenon, but one which has gained in popularity since such power is renewable and often readily available. This research explores the use and production of hydropower in Canada, with a special emphasis on the James Bay construction project. Attention is given to hydropower itself, different types of hydropower projects, and the economic, environmental and social costs associated with large hydropower megaprojects.
Hydroelectric power comes about when water passes through a vertical distance (called a 'head'). "Run-of-the-river" techniques use the head from the increased flow from a gradually declining riverbed. Dams use falling water which..."
This paper discusses the history and development of electricity from Benjamin Franklin to the early 20th Century: Major theories, discoveries and applications, social and psychological implications, occult aspects, inventions, motors, cells, communicati
6,750 words (approx. 27 pages), 12 sources, 1994, $ 135.95
From the Paper "Before about the last quarter of the eighteenth century, electricity essentially did not exist as a comprehensible phenomenon. The effects of lightning were of course universally known, but no remotely accurate guesses had been made as to its causes. The phenomenon of static electricity was also known--the word electric and its variations comes from the Greek word elektron (in Latin, electrum), or amber, which produces static electricity when rubbed with a cloth (Shilling, 1948, p. 5). (confusing, the term was also used for an alloy of gold and silver, perhaps of similar color.) Experimentation with static electricity began in sixteenth-century Italy; Jerome Cardan, about 1550, first distinguished electrical from magnetic phenomena. The relationship between the two continued to be acknowledged; Gilbert, in 1600, ... "
From the Paper "Instrumentally produced images greatly extend the range of human vision. Consequently, numerous technologies have been developed to create them. Perhaps one of the most useful of these consists of ultrasound. Three-dimensional reconstructions of ultrasound images make them easier to understand. Thus, in recent years, several three-dimensional ultrasonographic systems have been applied to various uses. Perhaps, at some time in the future, such systems will not only display information, but interpret it as well.
The anatomic structures and physiologic processes responsible for vision provide humans with an extremely effective mechanism for gathering information. This system can be substantially enhanced through the use of instruments (7:9-29)."
This analysis is a survey of how each of several branches of physics (quantum physics, molecular physics, biophysics, electrophysics, spectralphysics qne astrophysics) combine to create the medium of color television.
1,125 words (approx. 4.5 pages), 4 sources, 1995, $ 39.95
Most people who claim they do not understand physics, or who wonder if physics is important to learn about, do not realize that they probably spend two or more hours a day staring at complex multiple physics in action -- their color television sets (Dasgupta, 1994, 62). There they see in operation quantum physics (QP), molecular physics (MP), biophysics (BP), electrophysics (EP), spectralphysics (SP) and astrophysics (AP) -- to name just the more obvious (Basalla, 1988, 62). This analysis is a survey of how each of these branches of physics combine to create the medium of color television. To save space, the abbreviations of the physics fields will follow each application."
From the Paper "The purpose of this research is to examine certain relationships between the conception of material reality in modern physics and Taoism. The plan of the research will be to set forth the philosophical context in which physics and Taoism have been considered together, and then to discuss the details of intersection between these two seemingly disparate disciplines.
To see how 20th-century physics relates to Taoism, which essentially dates from the life and writings of Laotse (born 571 B.C.),1 it is necessary to explore how the development of theoretical physics in modern Western culture appears to have uncovered affinities with the more ancient culture of the East. The connections have entered the popular culture since the 1970s, notably with the publication of Zukav's Dancing Wu Li Masters: An Overview of the New Physics in 1979, and Capra's The Tao of ..."
This paper is a review of "The Life of Isaac Newton" by Richard Westfall, a detailed portrait of the English mathematician, physical scientist, and theologian.
1,565 words (approx. 6.3 pages), 2 sources, 2002, $ 51.95
Abstract This paper describes the book, "Life of Isaac Newton" by Richard Westfall, which tells chronologically the life of a solitary scholar, Trinity College professor, government administrator and elder statesman of the English scientific community by showing his accomplishments and human weakness. This paper tells the story of the "apple" and points out that Newton may have gotten the idea when he was young but it took many years for him to develop his theories.
From the Paper "For a number of years, Newton did not publish anything and seemed to immerse himself in the study of chemistry and its "occultist" neighbor, alchemy. Avoiding the more mystical areas of the science, there is no doubt he was searching for both knowledge as well as gold . Newton also was delving into some dangerous theological areas, doubting the existence of the Trinity and attributing it to a corruption of the true earlier Christian religion. Despite holding these beliefs until his death, he successfully kept them a secret, and even managed to be appointed to the Lucasian chair of Trinity College without having to take the usual step of taking on the holy orders. He kept his then-heretical religious beliefs a secret until his deathbed, when he refused to take his final communion "
Abstract The paper begins with some introductory remarks about the science of physics and by attempting to clear up some misconceptions regarding the way that pitchers throw balls. It then turns to discuss the storage of baseballs in a giant humidor and the effect of humidity on the motion of baseballs. It explores the materials used to make baseball bats and looks at their velocity. The paper concludes with an explanation of the new computer system introduced for the 2002 baseball season and a look at the involvement of physicists and engineers in evaluating this system.
From the Paper "According to some scientists, pitchers would defy the law of physics if the balls were actually thrown the way they were described. These scientist say a curve ball doesn?t actually curve, just appears to do so. They also say a rising fast ball is mislabeled "since a ball thrown overhand can"t rise (NPR, 1993).? They say players and announcers are incorrect when they say a ball hops, slides or hisses, since it is scientifically impossible, though they will admit a ball can sink a little. Scientists are quick to point out that a waist-high fast ball doesn"t actually rise when it hits your chin, but the hit occurs because the ball doesn"t fall as much as you predict it will. Announcers and players will disagree with these physicists, however, because they accept these concepts on faith and not science (NPR, 1993)."
Abstract This paper begins by providing a brief biographical overview of Isaac Newton, from his birth in England in 1642 to his groundbreaking scientific theories and discoveries. The paper covers Newton's scientific achievements, starting with the fact that he established a unified theory of approach to modern science. It discusses his discoveries relating to the white light, the telescope and to the field of optics in general. The paper also covers Newton's mathematical achievements in the form of calculus and his most famous discovery of all - gravity.
From the Paper "Newton's discoveries in optics were offset by his even more groundbreaking discoveries in pure mathematics and the science of mechanics. One of the most important modern mathematical tools "The Integral Calculus" was the brainchild of Newton. It need not be mentioned that without this mathematical tool the progress that the scientific community achieved in many disciplines would have been significantly delayed. However Newton's discoveries in the field of mechanics outweigh all his other accomplishments. Though Galileo had already discovered the first law of motion his theory was based on the movement of objects without any external influence or attraction between them. Newton's three laws of motion explained the hitherto inexplicable behavior of all physical bodies in motion. Still more astounding was Newton's discovery of gravity. All these four laws put together explained the mechanical motion of all earthly and heavenly bodies. Newton not only proposed these laws but also ratified them by using the integral calculus."
Abstract This paper discusses the work of the physicist John Bell, who's great recognized achievement occurred during the 1960s when he brought new life into the foundations of quantum theory. It examines how Bell demonstrated that discussion of such concepts as 'realism', 'determinism' and 'locality' could be formed into a rigorous mathematical statement, 'Bell's Theorem?, which is capable of experimental test. It looks at how his work has become a point of interest for scientists throughout the world who have found applications not only in quantum theory, but in investigations of the physical universe as well and how current applications of Bell's Inequality have been found in the development of quantum computing and quantum cryptography.
From the Paper "Quantum mechanics, however, fails to satisfy Bell's Inequality. He predicts correlations that cross over boundaries that are delineated by the structure of that inequality. Quantum mechanics predicts "odd" correlations that seem to defy a common, classical conception of reality, and in fact it is for basically this type of reason that Einstein, Podolsky, and Rosen argued in 1935 that it was incomplete. The formulation of Bell's Inequality, however, allowed the possibility for determining, through experiment, which was right: quantum mechanics or a local reality theory of the sort Einstein postulated, because it stated what must be the case in our experiments if a locally real theory is correct."
Abstract This paper provides an application oriented state-of-the-art review of smart materials and magnetostrictive actuators in aeronautical design. Smartness describes self-adaptability, self-sensing, memory and multiple functionality of the materials or structures. The paper shows that these characteristics provide numerous possible applications for these materials and structures in aerospace, manufacturing, civil infrastructure systems and biomechanics. Active vibration and acoustic transmission control, active shape control and active damage control are some of those areas which have found attractive applications for smart materials and structures. Examples of specific applications are micro-positioning, vibration isolation, fast acting valve and nozzles, transducers, luxury car shocks, and active engine mounts in aircrafts. The paper shows that system integration, mass and energy consumption reduction, elimination of moving parts in actuators and collocation between actuator and sensor are some of the benefits of using smart materials. Those smart materials covered in this paper are primarily piezoelectric, shape memory alloys and magnetostrictive.
From the Paper "Along these lines there is growing interest in the design and control of smart structures systems with embedded sensors and actuators that provide enhanced ability to program a desired response from a system. The ability to sense real-time conditions, i.e., the factors that contribute to turbulence and therefore resistance in a given environment, would be welcome and useful. Applications of interest include: (a) smart helicopter rotors with actuated flaps that alter the aerodynamic and vibrational properties of the rotor in conjunction with evolving flight conditions and aerodynamic loads; and (b) smart fixed wings with actuators that alter airfoil shape to accommodate changing drag/lift conditions. In these and other examples, key technologies include actuators based on materials that respond to changing electric, magnetic, and thermal fields via piezoelectric, magnetostrictive and thermo-elasto-plastic interactions."
Abstract The paper first defines and categorizes waves, looking at the different media that can carry waves, such as liquid with waves in the ocean, solid with sound carried through a wall, or gaseous with light traveling through the atmosphere. The writer then gives the mathematical formulae for defining and understanding the way in which waves are formed and travel through space.
From the Paper "There are a number of ways to categorize waves. One method is to categorize them according to the direction of the movement of the individual particles of the medium relative to the direction in which the waves travel. Three categories result: longitudinal waves, transverse waves, and surface waves. A longitudinal wave is a wave in which the particles of the medium move in a direction parallel to the direction in which the wave moves. Sound waves are an example of longitudinal waves. In a transverse wave, the particles of the medium move in a direction perpendicular to the direction in which the wave moves. Transverse waves require a relatively rigid medium in order to transmit energy due to the interaction of the particles that creates the perpendicular movement. As a result, only longitudinal waves flow through gas and the majority of liquids, even waves in the ocean."
