Abstract This paper describes in depth test results and discoveries on black holes and whether or not they do exist. Special emphasis is placed on a discussion of Cygnus X-1.
From the Paper "The only ways that we can detect black holes are to see the bending of light, or to examine the waves that they put off. The first thing discovered was a X-ray source in the constellation of Cygnus. This was then called Cygnus X-1 for its first X-ray source. No one knew for sure where this was coming from because X-ray telescopes cannot give that precise of a location. Later, in the spring of 1972 a new unexplained radio source was found in the same general area as Cygnus X-1. They identified this as an optical star known only by its classification number HDE226868. While we were finding this, the X-ray source for Cygnus X-1 showed up once again. They examined the data between these two objects, and made the conclusion that they were related. Most likely as a binary pair, with the star, and the unknown object, Cygnus X-1, orbiting around each other (DeGennaro). A binary pair is a pair of stars that orbit around each other, in this case one is a black hole, and the star orbits around it. As it orbits the immense gravity from the black hole strips gas from the normal star. As it falls it is moving at such a speed that the friction causes it to heat up to several million degrees, and this heat then causes the x-rays (McClintock)."
Abstract The paper defines the term 'aurora' and explains what causes these luminous arcs and swirls of light to appear at different times during the year. It explains the difference between the auroras of the Northern and Southern Hemisphere and the effect that the sun, in the form of solar wind, has on auroras.
From the Paper "One of the reasons that the auroras seem so mysterious to us is that they are a product of magnetism, which is a force that most of us are at least generally familiar with but one that is also, of course, invisible. Because both magnetism and the plasma field around the earth (which is simply a cluster or layer of charged particles) are invisible, we cannot see the physical underpinnings of the auroras, making them seem highly mysterious to us."
From the Paper "Gas chromatography is a method for the separation and analysis of complex mixtures of volatile organic and inorganic compounds (1:666). Most compounds with boiling points less than 250oC (480oF) can be analyzed using this technique. This paper will describe the apparatus used for gas chromatography, the principles on which it works, how a thermal conductivity detector works in gas chromatography, and whether or not it can be used with a sample of potassium t-butoxide.
General Principles of Gas Chromatography
There are two types of gas chromatography: gas-liquid chromatography, where the sorbent is a nonvolatile liquid called the stationary liquid phase, coated as a thin layer on an inert, granular solid support; and gas-solid chromatography, where the sorbent is a granular solid of large surface area (1:666). The..."
Abstract This paper discusses what makes Albert Einstein a hero. The writer claims that according to the definitions in Webster's Dictionary, Einstein was indeed a hero of the world community. The paper gives examples from the life and work of Albert Einstein to show that, unlike heroes of legend, Einstein was a modern hero.
From the Paper "Because of the anti-semitism he experienced and his dislike of the German military character, Einstein renounced his German citizenship in 1896 and was granted Swiss citizenship in 1901. He attended college in Zurich graduating in 1900 as a teacher of mathematics. In 1905 he earned a doctorate from the University of Zurich. It was also in 1905 that he wrote his revolutionary paper on the special theory of relativity. By 1909 he was recognized as a leading scientific thinker. In 1914 he returned to Germany to take up a prestigious research post. Einstein received the Nobel Prize in 1921 not for his theory of relativity but for his work on the photoelectric effect. He accepted a post at Princeton University and came to the United States in 1932, becoming a citizen in 1940 (Mathematicians/Einstein)."
Tags: mathematics, legend, science, research, Nobel
Abstract This paper is an examination of nuclear energy as a power source, focusing on the environmental impacts associated with producing and using the fuel. The history of the development of nuclear technology is briefly discussed. Then some of the positive attributes associated with nuclear power are given, as an argument for having pursued this technology despite its many uncertainties and pitfalls. Next, the many drawbacks commonly associated with nuclear power are presented, including the problem of radioactive waste. The paper concludes with a short look into what the U.S. government is doing to address the situation created by the nuclear industry and the areas in which it falls short of solving the problems at hand.
From the Paper "Safety concerns have rightly plagued the nuclear industry since its inception. On one front, there is the threat of nuclear proliferation, which has already become a reality with feuding countries like India and Pakistan, both possessing nuclear capabilities. This poses a major threat to the global population as well as the global environment. If even one of these weapons were to be detonated, the immediate impact on human and other biological life would be devastating. But the long term effects to the ecosystem are assumed to be equally as grave and ruinous."
Tags: atoms, reactor, uranium, Three, Mile, Island, Chernobyl
Abstract This paper explains how a nuclear reactor produces energy. The paper includes a discussion of fission, radioactivity, types of reactors and how they produce electricity.
From the Paper "All modern nuclear reactors operate on the principal of nuclear fission. Nuclear fission is a process in which the nucleus of an atom is split when it absorbs a free neutron after a collision occurs between the atom and the neutron. Splitting the nucleus of the atom releases large amounts of nuclear energy contained within the nucleus. Once the nucleus of the atom is split, multiple neutrons are released which are used to split nuclei of other atoms, causing what is known as a chain reaction. The chain reaction will continue as long as an average of one neutron per fission is absorbed by a nucleus. By harnessing and manipulating the energy that is released, other types of energy can be obtained. The power developed by nuclear fission has been used by man to create, as in the driving of an electric generator and for propulsion, as well as destroy, as in the release of atomic explosion. Whereas the fission in a nuclear reactor is precisely controlled to prevent a nuclear meltdown, the fission in an atomic explosion is not controlled and the shock wave produced by the splitting atom and its resulting chain reaction is equal to several thousand tons of TNT."
Abstract This paper defines what solar cells are, how they are created and the technological history behind their development. It provides scientific theories to support this information and explains the uses of solar cells in today's technology.
From the Paper "A solar cell is any device that directly converts the energy in light into electrical energy through the process of photovoltaics. Unlike batteries or fuel cells, solar cells do not utilize chemical reactions to produce electric power, and, unlike electric generators, they do not have any moving parts. Solar cells are also called solar batteries and, as the term solar implies, they are in most cases designed for converting sunlight into electrical energy.
"In the basic structure of a typical solar cell, light enters the device through a layer of material called the antireflection layer. The function of this layer is to trap the light falling on the solar cell and to promote the transmission of this light into the energy-conversion layers below. Such materials as silicon oxides or titanium dioxide are employed as the antireflection layer in solar cells."
Abstract This paper discusses the many positive aspects of UV radiation. The author examines the way ultraviolet light is commonly used, defines UV light, its dangers and how it's used in fluorescent lighting. The paper also describes how UV radiation is frequently used in water purification plants, destroying harmful bacteria.
From the Paper "UV radiation is what is responsible for causing human skin to tan. Unlike x rays, ultraviolet radiation has a low power of penetration, so its only direct effects on the human body occur on the skin's surface and include sunburn, suntan, aging, and carcinogenic changes. Most of us know that "sunburn" is not simply a metaphor but is in fact like burns from other forms of radiation and can include symptoms ranging from redness and tenderness to blisters, swelling, seepage of fluid, and sloughing of the outer skin. Tanning ? while it is never healthy, as we know now, is simply a natural body defense that uses melanin to help protect the skin from further injury from UV radiation."
Abstract This paper states that the field of aerodynamics could not exist without calculus. The author discusses the most prevalent and widely used equations. The advent of the computer has greatly improved the use of these equations in the field and allowed the field of aerodynamics to become more precise.
Table of Contents
Introduction
The Myth about Bumblebee Flight
Turbulence
The Bermouli Equation
Continuity Equation
Navier-Stokes Equations
Conclusion
From the Paper "Math is the language of science. The different disciplines of math relate to different areas of science. Science needs math in order to be understood. Algebra allows us to create sentences using numbers to describe an event. Geometry and Trigonometry help us to describe shapes, and Calculus is the tool for describing change. It can be a change in angles as in vector calculus, a change in rate, a change in speed, or almost any other change."
From the Paper " One of the foremost theoretical physicists, of our time, is Stephen W. Hawking. He states, in the acknowledgments of his book, A Brief History of Time: From the Big Bang to Black Holes, that the purpose of this book is to describe the "basic ideas about the origin and the fate of the universe . . . in a form that people without a scientific education can understand" (vi). Stephen Hawking does not give a clear thesis statement for this book. An implied thesis of this book would be that humans have always sought to understand how the universe was created and works; with continued development of the Grand Unified Theory (GUT), complete understanding begins to be possible. He poses the age old questions of: "Where did the universe come from, and where is it going? Did the universe have a beginning . . . what happened before then?" (1). Breakthroughs in physics and.."
Abstract This paper explains the composition of comets and clarifies what happens that gives them their shimmering appearance. It explains the various types of comets and elucidates the close link between the orbit of comets and the orbit of meteor showers. It lists the commonly seen features when a comet is near the sun and concludes by looking at factors resulting in a change in the behavior of a comet.
From the Paper "In outer space there are many things that man is still trying to fathom, and he has been intrigued by many things high up in the sky, but yet has not been able to figure out what they are or what they may mean. The field of astrology is one that began thousands of years ago with the Egyptians being the first known astronomers. They were the ones who created the first map of the North Star that is used till today to trace the movements of our planet and the heavenly bodies around it."
From the Paper "Outline: The Effect of Global Warming on Storm Systems
Thesis: The emission of anthropogenic greenhouse gases may eventually cause global climatic changes that result in storms of increased severity.
I. Global warming has occurred in recent decades.
A. There has been a corresponding increase in the release of anthropogenic greenhouse gases.
B. These gases trap solar radiation and cause an increase in average global temperatures.
C. If current trends continue, by about the year 2030 the world's average temperature could increase by 1.3?C to 2.3?C.
II. Global warming may dramatically affect weather.
A. The impact of global climatic change on weather is ..."
This paper explores and examines the uses of energy resources. It provides scientific calculations and compares nuclear energy as an alternative source of energy. This paper also has a few excerpts on new technologies and Fission/Fusion technology.
Abstract The paper addresses the question of whether the world's energy resources are becoming scarce with the impending increase of the human population. This paper analyzes the current energy resource uses, provides calculations of energy output and compares them with each other. A background of the various energy resources is given as well as an introduction to Nuclear Energy. Fission/Fusion technology is also brought up throughout the paper. An explanation of the Fission/Fusion theory is provided on how this renewable resource works.
From the Paper "With man's leap into technological advances, one would think that the boundaries are endless. The human race has allowed to progress for over hundreds of thousands of years. Especially in the late centuries of history, mankind has excelled immensely in achieving technological success. From the discovery of electricity, to the creation of the internal combustion engine, modern society has come to a time where ceaseless change exists in everyone's lifetime. Everyday man takes another step into the ladder of intellectual evolution. These advances still cannot guarantee happiness among society. For all of these things are dependent on one thing, energy. Energy is needed to maintain life in all things, from the plants of the Amazon forest, to the fuel burning inside of a Toyota Camry. Without it, all living things would cease to exist, including the humans who created this ever growing technology. One might speculate that with the extreme rate at which the population is increasing, all the resources on earth would become scarce. But an energy crisis is hardly anything for a person to worry about, for humanity has taken a step into the discovery of nuclear power."
Abstract North Korea has been intimidating the United States with a series of nuclear threats since October 2002, when U.S. officials stopped the supply of heavy oils to the North in retaliation of its confessed production of nuclear warheads, violating agreements signed in 1994. Shortly after, North Korea withdrew from the Nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty (NTP) and agreements with the United Nations. The paper shows that while there is little proof that North Korea has nuclear weapons, it is strongly suspected that it does. The paper discusses the North Korean weapon issue.
From the Paper "Many world leaders are suspicious about North Korea's withdrawal from the NPT for many reasons. For one, it is a well-known fact that countries developing clandestine nuclear weapons programs take many measures to conceal information about these programs from the rest of the world (NTI, 2003). Therefore, without membership in the treaty, North Korea has made it difficult for world leaders to obtain information about the country's weapon capabilities."
Abstract This paper looks at how Copernicus, Kepler, and Galileo, all provided different proof, facts, and theories about the universe in support of a heliocentric universe. These three pioneers sparked the movement from the old world view to the new by proving the universe's existence can be explained by scientific theories that are supported by mathematical equations.
From the Paper "Thinkers during the medieval times grew up on Aristotelian physics. This Ptolemaic theory claimed that bodies of matter always moved to their natural places. This belief maintained that stones fell because their natural place was the center of the universe: the earth. Many people saw truth in this theory mainly due to a severe lack of education. In addition, the people of these times were highly dependent on guidance from the church. When the church claimed something to be true, then it was so even if the claim being made was completely void of any explanation: dogma."
