Examines the causes and effects of this unusual climatic condition in California. Discusses its history, patterns, name, the role of jet stream, costs and its impact on weather and wildlife.
2,025 words (approx. 8.1 pages), 6 sources, 1995, $ 71.95
The weather stands as one of the phenomena of the natural world that has a great effect on human activity but which human beings seem to be incapable of affecting, or even predicting with any accuracy. In this age of satellites, space travel, and computer simulations, though, we learn more and more about how the weather is formed and about different natural forces related to the weather either as cause or effect. Among the forces being studied today for the effect they have on weather conditions are the jet stream high above and the condition known as El Nino found in the Pacific ocean. The two in concert have a profound effect on the weather in California and throughout the Pacific region, with other effects extending far beyond that immediate area. El Nino has been blamed both for massive rains and drought ..."
Technological and theoretical innovations ranging from ranging from DNA computing to optical circuitry hold the potential to revolutionize computing [1:1363]. This paper provides an overview of developments in optical circuitry as these developments apply to computer technology.
In search of new computational power, some researchers are attempting to use light as an information carrier [5:245]. Pulses of light are "the fastest messengers in nature," and the light pulses "pass through one another without effect. That should allow any number of activities to take place simultaneously in an optical circuit" [1:1363].
To construct the elements of an optical circuit, some optics researchers are developing light guides that carry photons around ..."
Through his study of gases, John Dalton arrived at some of the most important theoretical concepts in modern chemistry. He established a system whereby relative particle weights can be obtained from available chemical data. In addition, he devised a simple system of rules for chemical combination. Dalton also provided a framework for a system of atomic symbolism. His atomic theory is very useful for explaining a wide variety of physical and chemical phenomena.
Some have called John Dalton the father of the atomic theory of chemistry (1:83). His exact birth date is unknown. By his death in 1844 at the age 78, Dalton had devised some of the most fundamental ideas of modern chemistry (3:984). Indeed, many view the scientist as one of the founders of modern chemistry."
Abstract This paper examines one of the most promising energy resources being currently explored, nuclear energy. It shows that the idea of using nuclear energy is being used to scare mankind, because at the time the only connection one had with nuclear energy was nuclear weapons. In recent years however, there have been efforts to explore the use of nuclear energy for the purpose of sustaining life. While there are questions about its safety and use, it is quickly becoming evident that nuclear energy is going to be the wave of the future. This paper takes the reader on an exploratory journey of the issues surrounding nuclear energy and the positive as well as negative aspects of the topic.
From the Paper "The first alert came by way of Three Mile Island, in Pennsylvania (Siegel, 1991). The threat of a melt down that occurred there caused a nationwide panic and a first time anger at the fact that law makers had allowed nuclear energy to be used(Siegel, 1991). Just as those concerns finally were laid to rest the incident at Chernobyl occurred. If Three Mile Island was the cake, the accident at Chernobyl was the frosting and after it killed dozens of people, destroyed countless miles of land for the next few centuries and exposed millions to fallout symptoms for the next several generations America firmly put its foot down and began to demand the slow and stopping of all nuclear power activity in the states."
Abstract This paper discusses the life and work of Isaac Newton and how his laws and discoveries have ensured that his name is imprinted in the history of science. The author illustrates how Newton is not only one of the greatest scientists but also one of the most influential scientific personalities.
From the Paper "Isaac Newton was the greatest and the most influential scientist of all times. Born in Woolsthrope, England on a Christmas day in 1642 Newton was a bright child with an incredible mechanical aptitude. Newton entered the Cambridge University when he was eighteen years of age and soon he mastered the science and mathematical concepts of his time and went on to continue his independent research. It was during this period that Newton laid the foundation for the subsequent discoveries that were to revolutionize the scientific world. Newton was conferred the honorable Fellow of Royal Society of London in 1671."
Abstract This paper discusses the development of quantum mechanics, illustrating its background which began with the classical theory of the atom, continued to Bohr's simple atomic theory, and was developed further with de Broglie's wave theory, Heisenberg's uncertainty principle and Schrodinger's equation. To further investigate the development of quantum mechanics, each of these stages are looked at in more detail, showing the main ideas that each stage added to the understanding of the atom. This paper shows that quantum mechanics is based on the combination of the ideas of many scientists, with the final acceptance of quantum theory occurring when Schrodinger's equation tied together previous theories and allowed them to be applied to subatomic particles.
From the Paper "The classical theory of the atom is based on the model of an atom being made up of a positive nucleus containing protons and neutrons with negatively charged electrons orbiting around this nucleus. This model was first proposed by Rutherford in 1911 who described the atom saying, ?Most of the volume of the atom is empty space in which electrons move around the nucleus.? This basic model of the atom has been expanded on and used to determine how chemicals react with each other, the charges of chemicals and the physical properties of chemicals. While this has involved expanding the theory, the basic understanding of the structure remains the same."
Abstract This paper attempts to suggest an answer to the question of governace in the universe. It looks at what may seem to be a hirarchial order of "Cause and Effect", which sees every event as the result of a previous one and at the same time the cause of another event. As we go further back into the very begining it appears that "Time" itself is the essence of it all.
From the Paper "While not a popular theory among modern historians and philosophers, the idea of the Great Chain of Being does offer an explanation for the harmonies and interrelationships that exist within the universe. Nothing can occur without a prior cause, and each preceding event is the reason for the following event. . . Therefore, there must be an overall order, an overall rhyme and reason to the universe and all that is contained within it. Time does indeed have a purpose, and its purpose is the eternal cycle of birth, development, and regeneration."
Abstract This paper discusses sound from an anthropological perspective and concentrates on the origin and the nature of sound. The paper also reviews on how the study and the development of sound progressed with technology. It also concentrates on the association of sound with language and culture and shows how the pronunciation of words have resulted in different sounds with the development made in the writing scripts. The paper also lays emphasis on the association of sound with memory called echoic memory.
From the Paper "People love sound and sound today is ubiquitous; sound will continue to fascinate people for ages to come. The pleasures of sound flow from frequency, amplitude and harmonic constitution or waveform. Perhaps there is no other form of art where the pleasures of mere form are more marvelous in complexity, more intellectual in essence and purer in quality. Plato once suggested that the sensibility for sound might be the most civilizing of educational instruments. People and sound both belong to each other and both grow out of life."
Abstract Discusses Classical Turing Machines. Their relationship to quantum computing and Quantum Turing Machines. Defines a Turing Machine, what it does and compares present day computing to the Turing Machine. Quantum computational approaches. Quantum mechanics. Major results associated with quantum computing. The Turing Machine as a theoretical model. Its use in science. Recursive functions.
From the Paper "Abstract
An overview is presented that investigates Classical Turing Machines and their relationship to quantum computing and Quantum Turing Machines. The examination begins by exploring the original work of Alonzo Church and Alan Turing, defining what is a Turing Machine, and discussing the differences between recursion and interation and how this relates to the overall debate on comparing present day digital computing to the Turing Machine.
Because the Turing Machine is a theoretical contrivance, it still has limitations placed upon it that can be generally overcome by considering quantum computational approaches. In order to understand quantum computing, one must first become familiar with the basics of quantum mechanics as they relate to this approach."
Abstract This paper advances the argument that the colors we consciously experience are not the same as whatever colors may exist in the external world/ This means that even if color is a real physical property of things in the world, the colors objects "actually" have are not the same as the colors we experience them as having. This is not to say that things we see as being red may actually be blue, but rather that red, blue, and all of the other colors that comprise human color experience do not exist outside of that experience, regardless of whether there is an objective property of color in the world. This paper uses considerations put forward by George Berkeley and John Locke as well as current philosophers, neuroscientists and physicists. It approaches the topic from both a scientific standpoint as well as a philosophical one, though more emphasis is put on the latter.
From the Paper "Berkeley simply extends this argument to additionally cover Locke's primary qualities, which he argues are likewise only known to us through our senses and perceptions. If colors, smells, tastes, etc., do not exist objectively in the world because they are not independent of the senses, then, by Berkeley's reasoning, nothing can exist independently of perception because our knowledge of everything in the world ? including the primary qualities, which are the basic entities of all objects ? also stems entirely from our senses. Berkeley's argument is largely based on the false reasoning that physical things in the world could not possible cause ideas in us , so his conclusion is easy to shrug off. But there is something very intriguing in the points he makes leading up to that misstep: We are indeed limited in our knowledge of the world by our inability to observe external things independent of our senses."
Abstract This paper examines how magic and religion have always seemed to be at odds with the scientific community and how ironically enough they were major contributors to the motivation and means behind the Scientific Revolution. It looks at how many of the leaders of discovery in that time were heavily influenced by religious matters and how men like Descartes, Newton and Galileo saw their work as evidence of God's infinite wisdom. It examines the specific circumstances surrounding scientific discovery in the 1600s and the natural philosophers themselves and evaluates the influence of these factors on methodology and motivation.
From the Paper "Magic was redefined as well. The new interest that began the Scientific Revolution was due in part to a desire for more practical convenience. Mechanism and alchemy came directly from magic and the occult, but according to our present definition of magic, this fact is blurred. We tend to view the mystical, demonic, or spiritual side of magic as the whole, but in truth, scientists took the physical, known use of magic and renamed it SCIENCE. At one time, using an herb or a mineral solution to cure a physical ailment was considered natural magic. To use one thing in nature to affect another, to study their interaction closely, and to derive conclusions from this intimate knowledge of the natural power of things, was an early form of the Scientific Method. This method was taken directly from natural magicians."
Abstract This paper states that interconnects and isolation has been, is and will continue to be the key factors that limit the performance and costs of integrated circuits. The author points out that as technology is scaled below a quarter micron, the problems associated with interconnect are ever more pressing and could potentially become the roadblock to progress. This paper concludes that technology is changing the physical size of circuitry, allowing an 11 Million transistors on an 80 mmz die, but this is only a short respite before other technologies allow more and more processing to be done in smaller spaces with less.
Table of Contents
Overview
The Need for Device Isolation Defined
The Evolution in Manufacturing and Deposition Technology
The Evolution in Materials Choice for Device Isolation
A Critical Review of Literature from 1997 through mid-1999
Conclusion
From the Paper "Essential to chip fabrication is a process called lithography, which resembles the printing of a photograph by shining light through a negative onto a photosensitive surface. To produce features less than 0.1 mm wide, semiconductor companies face the task of developing methods that involve light or other electromagnetic radiation of wavelengths much shorter than those commonly used today. The shorter the wavelength, the finer the line can be sharply drawn."
Abstract This paper summarizes the article written by Prof. Kerry A. A. "Toward a General Theory of Hurricanes" which appeared in the July, 1988 edition of "American Scientist" and which calls for the placement of the physics of hurricanes in a more general context. The paper shows that Emanuel's reasoning behind this is that it would allow scientists to predict how the frequency and intensity of these storms would respond to changes in climate and allow scientists to relate hurricanes to seemingly different phenomena such as oceanic storms of the polar night and dust devils.
From the Paper "The question of why hurricanes are so rare is considered next, for it is often known that there are several empirical condition that are necessary but not sufficient for the formation of hurricanes. There is some limitation which prevents these from being sufficient in most cases, and Emanuel considers a number of numerical simulations which may give a clue. He says there is a need for a strong starting disturbance, and this is consistent with the observation that real hurricanes never start spontaneously. The model of Rotunno and Emanuel is asymmetric and does not allow variations of the explicitly calculated fields around circles centered at the storm center. To start a hurricane, it was necessary to impose on the basic state a weak vortex which decays upward from the surface. This is the disturbance which starts the process toward a hurricane."
Abstract The First Industrial Revolution (1760-1850) had an immense impact on the professionalization of science in Britain, France and Germany. This paper traces the history of the process of changing science from a field that belonged to "some enlightened entrepreneurs and a handful of aristocratic patrons" to a field in the which the state sponsored new initiatives and created a professional and well-defined discipline. The paper compares the process of institutionalization and the creation of modern universities between Britain and the rest of Europe.
From the Paper "Much of the system of technical training--on a state-supported basis--was continued even after the Revolution as the general notion of centralized education and training remained a favored plan with nearly all successive rulers of France. Indeed, although the sluggishness of the Ancien R?gime and the upheavals that followed the Revolution contributed to France's failure to industrialize in the eighteenth century, the Revolution proved to be the salvation of French science and "helped decisively shift the centre of scientific excellence back from England to the continent" (Rose & Rose, 1969, p. 19). The liberalizing impetus behind the Revolution was opposed to science as an attribute of aristocratic culture and many revolutionaries considered technological advance to be merely a means of impoverishing artisans and the emergent working class. But there was also a firm conviction that, in the hands of the people, science would be a powerful force for the nation's good."
Abstract This paper explains that GPS provides all-weather round-the-clock navigation capabilities for the military and is an integral asset in numerous civilian applications and industries around the globe, including recreational uses such as boating, aircraft and hiking, corporate vehicle fleet tracking and surveying. The author states that the military's Precision (P) code provides positional accuracy to within approximately 20 meters. The paper reports that the first eleven spacecraft (GPS Block 1) were used to demonstrate the feasibility of the GPS system; the orbit inclination was 63 degrees, differing from the 55 degrees used for the operational system.
Table of Contents
Abstract
Background: Global Positioning System (GPS)
Problems to be Solved
Technical Discussion
Launch Facts
Future Prospects
From the Paper "SLR will continue to be essential for measuring temporal variations of the gravity field given the passive simplicity of these orbit targets and the decadal span of precision data. With the launch of Lageos 2 in 1992 and Stella in 1993, in combination with the older geodetic satellites Lageos, Starlette, and Ajisai, estimates of the temporal variations of the gravity field will undoubtedly be improved in accuracy, and spatial and temporal resolution. Geophysical modeling of temporal gravity variations will also continue to be important, since their combination with the satellite estimates will improve our knowledge of the solid Earth, ocean, and atmosphere. The development of realistic eddy resolving multi-layer ocean models forced by real wind fields will be an important resource over the next few years for determining the role played by the atmosphere and oceans in the excitation of the Earth's gravity and rotational variations [Rosen, 1993]. Future improvements in the long-wave-length models of the time-invariant gravity field will depend on accurately modeling or estimating both the tidal and non-tidal gravity variations, as the current uncertainties for the low degree coefficients are at the same level as the known temporal variations of the coefficients. While tidally-induced variations have been modeled for many years, the importance of modeling non-tidal variations in gravity is only now becoming apparent."
