Abstract This paper is an in-depth treatise on the subject of black holes (it does not contain any sophisticated math). A black hole is a region of space where matters collapses in upon itself toward an infinite density, thereby endlessly increasing its mass and gravitational pull. It details the evidence for their existence both theoretical and empirical and describes the debates concerning their fundamental nature (how they warp time and gravity). It evaluates theories by Einstein and Stephen Hawking as well as related phenomenon such as white holes and wormholes.
From the Paper "Man has always looked into the heavens and questioned the nature of the universe around him. Through the science of physics he has created such seemingly basic and ubiquitous concepts as time, mass, weight, and gravity. Held to be absolutes, these conceptual building blocks allow him to define, categorize, and relate the objects he discovers in the vastness of space. And without argument, his definitions and equations intercalating these abstractions hold true - except in one specific locus of space. A region of mystery possessing infinite depth yet of finite size, detectable in space yet emitting no electromagnetic radiation, an enigma of nature that beckons to be resolved. An entity first described as a "frozen star" but then later dubbed a "black hole" by John Archibald Wheeler. What is this black hole?"
From the Paper "Newtonian or classical physics pre-supposes a definite present in which all matter is simultaneously present. Posited against the importance of space and time, two distinct entities, is the notion of enduring organisms, of which man is a member. Endurance means that a pattern that is apparent in one event is also apparent in the parts of that event, and can be distinguished by a certain rule. Endurance pre-supposes a meaning for the lapse of time, where space consists of space only, time only of times, and where points and movements are limits.
In the traditional view, space and time are both experienced the same by most people; with space being characterized by extension in all directions and time characterized by duration."
This paper examines arguments about the benefits and hazards of nuclear generating plants: Energy crisis, safety factors, thermal pollution, nuclear waste and meltdown possibility.
1,350 words (approx. 5.4 pages), 8 sources, 1990, $ 47.95
From the Paper "Nuclear power plants, or using nuclear power to generate electricity, are a controversial topic in contemporary society. Proponents of nuclear power believe that the amount of inexpensive energy derived from nuclear power plants far outweighs the danger, while critics of the industry often point to the extraordinary dangers that could occur if an accident happened. For instance, imagine that a nuclear power plant is located on a natural geologic fault. The fault produces a powerful earthquake of a higher magnitude than the designers of the plant ever envisioned. During the earthquake, the reactor core is cracked, and poisonous radioactive particles are released into the air forming a dangerous cloud. As the prevailing winds push that cloud over a larger area, it drops poisonous debris over the land, killing and changing the ecological balance of the ... "
From the Paper "Process--Energy has always been an important ingredient in the development of civilization. Large amounts of energy are necessary for sustaining industrial nations and bringing forward Third World countries. An adult human requires approximately 2500 food calories or about 100 watts of power, to sustain life (3:1). In the United States, the per capita consumption of all forms of energy is approximately 100 times this basic sustenance rate. For the entire world population, energy consumption is about 15 times the basis rate (3:1). A number of questions continue to arise. Is enough energy available? How long will the energy supply last? When will new sources be required? What world events will disrupt the flow of raw energy material, and what countries will suffer? Clearly, an inexhaustible supply of energy is required. This inexhaustible supply of energy may be ... "
From the Paper "One of the most pressing problems facing humankind today is the lack of long-term assurance of energy supplies. Most energy resources in use are finite; there are only so many coal, oil, and natural gas reserves that can be tapped-and those reserves are not bottomless in quantity. The limit is fast approaching, as technology demands higher and higher levels of what resources are available. One of the most controversial sources of alternative energy is that of nuclear power. The mere mention of the phrase brings immediate response, whether of the enthusiastic or the (more common) hostile variety.
The idea of nuclear power as a viable source of energy has been around for at least half a century now. Yet, general acceptance and usage of this potentially constant resource is no closer today than back when it was regarded merely as a science ... "
From the Paper "As nuclear weapons and nuclear power plants have proliferated over the last ten years, the need to safely dispose of the nuclear waste associated with them has grown, as well. In addition to these two sources of radioactive waste, there are other, less dramatic sources. Complicating the issue of radioactive waste is the not-in-my-backyard-syndrome: while most individuals agree that something has to be done about radioactive waste, few individuals are willing to have a radioactive waste site in the immediate area. This research examines the various types of radioactive waste and the progress toward establishing long-term waste sites for them.
According to the U.S. government, there are four categories of radioactive waste: uranium mill tailings, which are what is left over after uranium is extracted from raw uranium; high-level ... "
From the Paper "Incorporating Solar Energy in the Building of a House
The incorporation of solar energy into the building of a house can greatly reduce the cost of heating or cooling the house, even when used along with conventional means of energy production and uses. This paper will discuss several different aspects of incorporating solar energy into residential living quarters and will touch on the subjects of sighting and orientation of the house and solar panels, the window locations and. overhang, plants and vegetation, the solar collectors or cells, and thermal mass storage. The usefulness of solar energy will also be discussed."
Recent high pressure experiments have provided insight on the chemical composition of Mars' mantle (11:2239). Such studies indicate that 15.7 percent of the planet is composed of metal..a large proportion of which is iron (11:2239). It is estimated that partial melting of this mantle produces an iron.rich basaltic magma which generally reaches the planet's surface via massive shield volcanos and fissure eruptions (5:90). The extrusion of this turbulent, low viscosity lava has resulted in thinly disseminated iron sulfide mineralization over large areas of Mars (5:90). In addition to these iron.rich flows, the red planet's surface is also characterized by large accumulations of basaltic ash (7:2237). These deposits..some of which are meters thick..have undergone variable degrees of weathering (10:24). It ..."
From the Paper "This study will argue that a grand unified theory which is truly "grand" and "unified" will cover, theoretically, both the "outer" and "inner" limits of the universe. As we shall see, the most seriously considered grand unified theories do indeed cover both inner and outer limits.
Einstein worked on a Unified Field Theory for the last twenty-five or so years of his life. As Barnett writes, "Today the outer limits of man's knowledge are defined by Relativity, the inner limits by Quantum Theory. Relativity has shaped all our concepts of space, time, gravitation, and the realities that are too remote and too vast to be perceived. The Quantum Theory has shaped all our concepts of the atom, the basic units of matter and energy, and the realities that are too elusive and too small to be perceived" (1:107)."
Examines their history and evolution from 644 A.D. to the 1990s, discussing purposes, technology, designs, theory, materials, efficiency and wind turbines.
2,250 words (approx. 9 pages), 6 sources, 1993, $ 79.95
From the Paper "Historically, wind energy conversion systems can be considered as one of man's earliest machines. Windmills, according to documentation, were used in Persia as early as 644 A.D. to grind grain (5:9). Mechanically, the Persian windmill was a development of the watermill--an earlier machine used for turning grains into flour--and it looked a little like one turned up on end. A vertical shaft was set in a square tower, with sails set at right angles to the shaft at its top end. The wind passed through slots in the tower on to the sails, allowing the shaft to turn, as well as any machinery set at the bottom end (2:13).
Traditionally, this principle travelled with the prisoners of Ghengis Khan to China, where horizontal mills with matting sails, but without the enclosing tower, were used to drive irrigation machinery. The Chinese discovered that if the ..."
From the Paper "This research examines the global strategies of the American petroleum industry. The findings of this research are presented in four major areas of interest: production and consumption comparisons for the United States and other global regions; global configuration; global coordination; competition strategy; and industry structure.
The contemporary history of the United States has been and continues to be characterized by a dependency on foreign sources of energy--primarily on crude oil (Ashton, 1992, p. 82).
Overall, the United States produces energy in an amount equivalent to 88.9 percent of its total energy consumption
(Energy Information Administration, 1992, pp. 126-127).
Aggregate measures, however, do not reflect the mismatch between the country's energy production mix and the energy consumption ..."
From the Paper "Nuclear Energy in Japan
More than any other country, Japan has staked its industrial future on nuclear power.. Its 40 commercial reactors currently supply about 26% of Japan's electricity.. In addition, by the year 2010, the Japanese government plans to double that number to about 80 in order to supply 43% of the country's electricity needs.. Since Japan has virtually no domestic supplies of coal or oil, nuclear power is its way of achieving energy independence..
In 1991 alone, the government allocated nearly 60% of its Science and Technology Agency's budget, or 317.3 billion yen, to nuclear research and development.. Its long.term policy involves the commercial use of plutonium in fast.breeder reactors and light.water reactors, as well as vigorous research on fusion."
Invention of the first microscope occurred about 1600 A.D. (3:39). As technology advanced, by 1887 improvements in resolution enabled John Buist to observe the small pox virus (3:40). Then, throughout the 20th century, progress in the field of microscopy accelerated (3:40). Ernst Ruska's invention of the electron microscope around 1930 increased resolutions by orders of magnitude (3:40). This was quickly followed by the development of phase contrast, differential interference contrast, and fluorescence microscopy techniques (11:183). It was the widespread use of fluorescent probes..and the background glare they produced..which eventually led to the development of the confocal microscope (3:40).
The first confocal microscope was invented by Minsky in 1955..."
Following the nuclear accident at Chernobyl, an Italian referendum held in November of 1987 showed widespread opposition to all nuclear development.. In response to this poll, Italy's government came out with a new National Energy Plan (PEN) in August 1988.. The plan placed a 5.year moratorium on the construction of new nuclear plants and called for research into newer, safer designs that would one day allow nuclear power to return.. Since PEN went into effect, nuclear energy technologies have progressed considerably. These advances, as well as other factors, may soon cause Italy to reevaluate its nuclear energy policy.
The public poll of 1987 rejected an array of propositions that either favored nuclear power or facilitated the siting of..."
From the Paper " By the last few decades of the nineteenth century, theoretical physics was entering a state of crisis.. This crisis, which reached its culmination about the turn of the century, was due to several factors. New discoveries, some quite accidental (such as that of X-rays) made physicists aware of previously unimagined form of radiant energy..
In addition, the development of precise means of measurements allowed experimental confirmation to be sought even for extremely subtle effects, which previously would have remained in the domain of theory alone.. For example, the luminiferous ether, through which light was supposed to move, was widely assumed to exist by nineteenth century physicists. Once its effects became measurable, experimentalists sought to identify them--and failed to find them, triggering a crisis.."
