From the Paper "Although the properties of supercritical fluids were know, it was not until 1958 when Lovelock suggested that a supercritical fluid can be used as a mobile phase in chromatography. Now, supercritical fluid chromatography (SFC) is widely used in extraction, fraction, and chromatography. SFC has many advantages over other chromatography methods. It allows one to separate many substances that cannot be analyzed by gas chromatography. Its applicability is limited by volatility and thermal properties of many organic compounds. Although less volatile compounds can be analyzed by high performance liquid chromatography, very long analysis time and very small column diameters are needed in order to achieve good separations due to the limitations of solute diffusion in the mobile phase. SFC is able to overcome these difficulties and allows high-resolution separation at low temperatures with short analysis times."
Abstract This paper explains the theory behind the carnot cycle. It also goes through the influence of Nicholas-Leonard-Sadi Carnot, William Thomson (Lord Kelvin), and Rudolf Clausius. The paper includes pictures and diagrams as supplements to the text.
From the Paper "All of the heat input is supplied at a single high temperature and all the heat output is rejected at a single lower temperature. The Carnot cycle is completely reversible since there are no "one way" processes such as explosions or throttling actions. The isothermal and adiabatic processes of the Carnot cycle are idealizations of actual processes. The direction of either process may be reversed by only a slight change in the external pressure. In addition, there is no friction present and the working substance is always extremely close to equilibrium."
Tags: carnot, clausius, cycle, engine, heat, kelvin, lord, rudolf
Abstract An article about various theories which describe the origin of the universe. The author investigates each theory: steady state theory, geometric theory, small bang theory and big bang theory and provides a personal opinion about the relevance of each.
From the Paper "Since the dawn of intelligent man, humanity has speculated about the origins of the universe. There is evidence, which indicates that the universe started around 15 billion years ago. This is probably the greatest discovery imaginable; however, the universe still seems to be a very controversial subject. Most scientists agree that there was a beginning but there is a lot of speculation of how it (the universe) actually started. The much-celebrated Greek philosopher, Aristotle, denied the fact that there ever was a beginning. He and his associates believed in the eternal existence of the universe, they also tried to prove that the universe was static, and was unchanging in time. However, there is evidence, which suggests that the universe is changing with time."
Tags: evolution, bang, geometry, physics, science, world
Abstract This paper contains information about the construction and parts of a common laser. The paper also provides a detailed description of how the laser works and discusses some of the dangers and negative aspects of lasers. The paper also covers the different uses of the laser such as leisure use, business use, and home use. Lastly, future possibilities for the laser and how it can still benefit society with uses not yet explored are discussed.
From the Paper " Lasers are high intensity beams of light emitted from a unit consisting of a flash bulb, a ruby, and opposing mirrors. Theodore Maiman first introduced these extremely strong light beams to the world in 1960. The beam emitted by the laser is very intense and can be damaging or harmful. Although harmful, lasers are also very useful tools for a wide array of tasks. Lasers are used for everything from eye surgery to leveling a ceiling. Lasers are an innovation that has withstood the test of time with people finding new and creative uses for this spectacular invention."
Abstract This paper reviews an article about overcoming technological difficulties in the field of hot-air ballooning. The solution hit upon by designers and had its roots in the world's first air disaster ? a good idea poorly executed. The implication for the future is that we should look backwards as well as forward when solving difficult problems.
From the Paper "People are flying around the world for the fun of it. They are described as sportsmen and adventurers, but at least in one way they have also been visionaries. Perhaps in other endeavors we should continue to look forward as well as back, and examine ideas that didn?t work and were perhaps discarded. There may be some excellent ideas that when reworked can move modern technology ahead. What we think of as a "bad idea" may have some useful ideas within it. "
The history of rocketry from concept to modern day space travel. Researches the rocket engine's international development and significance in the space program.
2,940 words (approx. 11.8 pages), 4 sources, 1999, $ 86.95
Abstract This research paper investigates the science of rocketry starting with the original concept, up to the present day space program. Developments in Germany, Russia, and the U.S. are detailed, along with the ways in which rockets have been used both on earth and in space. Most of the paper will deal with the development of the rocket engine up to its present day standards and its history in space flight.
From the paper:
"The notion of flying has fascinated people since the beginning of history, and most likely since the beginning of time. With the development of astronomy, man shifted that dream to another realm: outer space. Robert H. Goddard, a physicist of the early 1900?s, once told a story in his autobiography of how he was inspired to follow the dream of space flight. He recalls once when he was 17 years old; he was trimming branches in a cherry tree, and looked out at the sprawling country landscape. He imagined how fabulous it would be to soar upward into space, watching the earth receding below him. ?I was a different boy when I descended the ladder,? Goddard states, ?Life had now a purpose for me.?
Abstract This paper explores animals' abilities to sense electricity and magnetism and their ability to use these qualities as part of their sensory machinery. The author examines the type of electrical energy that certain animals release and provides examples.
From the paper:
"Imagine what it would be like if you were able to sense electric and magnetic fields. You would be able predict when a bad lightning storm was coming and orient yourself in the right direction if you were lost in the woods. Although such abilities only exist in fantasy for humans, many animals? posses these abilities in real life. In this paper we will explore the fascinating ability of certain animals to use electricity and magnetism as part of their sensory machinery."
Abstract This paper explores the concept of evolution from a biotechnological point of view and the ongoing discussion amongst scholars. It looks at the article - Playing God in the Garden by Michael Pollan and explains why the epitomises the discussion of this topic.
From the Paper "Some might say that human beings are, in large part, an arrogant species. Perhaps, they would suggest, we carry a general air of self-righteousness with respect to our relationship with the earth. It is a mien that evolves as we do. Our constantly developing sense of self, as well as the abilities to reason, implement social behavior and conduct intelligent thought processes, contributes directly to the superiority that we feel both as individuals and as a collective civilization. Whether this feeling of superiority is justified or not is a debate best left to another forum, however, the assumption of its credence has had a historically far-reaching effect on the world, perhaps an effect greater than any genuine substantiation to that assumption could engender. As a whole, we have taken the autonomy of global domination upon ourselves, and, rather than appealing to the practice of natural selection, we force the surrounding environments and species into an involuntary adaptation to our needs. As such, human evolution, and the demand it creates, affects change, or evolution in those environments and species. In the pursuit of our own survival, we have altered, and in some cases disturbed, the natural process of evolution in the plant and animal kingdoms in order to meet our own needs. Thusly, it can be deduced that a good majority of the unnatural evolution of certain environments and species can be directly attributed to the evolution of humanity. This is of crucial import when considering particular examples of natural response to human tampering as discussed in our text. In his account, "Playing God In the Garden", Michael Pollan provides insight to Steven Jay Gould's discussion on the definition of evolution, "What Does the Dreaded "E" Word Mean, Anyway?" by directly applying the questions of human evolution's predictability, directionality and, essentially, its relevance to its surrounding world."
Abstract This extensive paper looks at all aspects of magnets and their unique attraction. It explains the scientific logic behind this attraction, defines what is metals and why some metals can be metallic and some not; and also looks into "false magnets". The paper covers the history of this discovery and examines the North and South Pole's role. It finally looks at the use magnets serve in industry and technology today.
From the Paper "Law of the nature is that positive attracts negative. God has created everything in pairs and examples of this pairing are found everywhere in nature. A lot of the human study and knowledge in different fields of science be it biology, chemistry, physics or mathematics revolves around the study of reciprocal pairs and their interactions. Some examples may be the masculine and feminine sex, acids and bases, positive and negative particles (i.e. electrons and protons at the atomic level), positive and negative charges (i.e. electrical charges running in wires transporting electric power) and some modern physics phenomenon such as gravitational and anti gravitational fields and matter and the theoretical anti matter. It seems that a lot of nature follows some very well cut out disciplines in orienting itself. There always seems to be some mysterious connections joining two forces that may seem to be independent of each other, but their behaviors charter similar formulae. "
Abstract This paper is a trans-relativistic analysis by the author to attempt at reconciling the paradoxical causality implications, ramifications and consequences of "Faster Than Light (FTL) Signaling". The author's key objective is to break the "institutionalist hold" over physics by the STL Guardianship. It is argued that there is a need for a "greater" relativity theory. This paper has several scientific diagrams and comes to many conclusions regarding these theories.
From the Paper "As "The Principle Of Causality" argues; our world (or universe) wouldn't make much sense if it were just a jumble of events leading nowhere and having no purpose. And our reality certainly proves that this is not the case. But now, physicists must deal with "a new reality": a broken Spacetime Speed Barrier (and possibly a paradigm shift). Even though skepticism about the "break-through-value" of this (Wang?s) research is the obvious first issue to be dealt with, the question I ask is this: what would be "the ramifications of the pinnacle break-through"; the realization of FTL signaling? This question radiates thru my consciousness: Does "FTL" data from Lijun Wang's research really give credence to the notion that information can jump forward in time? If not, time will tell (no pun intended). But if so, this would suggest that The Theory Of Relativity needs to be "re-thought and reworked" for it to be reconciled with "a new tenet of 21st Century Physics": Superluminal Spacetime Physics. This focused omposite theoretic is my first attempt at speculative theoretical reconciliation of one aspect of the overall (FTL) issue: Paradoxical Trans-Relativistic Causality*."
Tags: causality, compression, ftl, relativity, space, superluminal, time
Abstract This paper looks at the life of Oliver Dimon Kellogg, who spent much of his time researching and advancing potential theory in the world of mathematics. The author discusses his contributions to math and physics, still used today.
From the Paper "When the country no longer required his services, Kellogg was sent to Harvard University. Here he explored a few new mathematical venues before returning to his groundbreaking work in Potential theory. The 1920s were in many ways a decade of inspiration for artists, writers, mathematicians, scientists, and other thinkers across the globe. The war had dampened many spirits, but others saw its finale as a chance for new hope -- for a future without war. Others saw it as a future that was considerably grimmer, yet still full of the possibilities that only the realization of one's own finite nature can bring."
Abstract An argumentative paper, exploring the chemical make up of uranium, showing that it is extremely difficult to dispose of this material in a complete way. It looks at current disposal practices in the world and analyzes their pros and cons.
From the Paper "Radioactive material is defined as having atoms with extremely excited outer electron shells. This makes them unstable, excitable and an efficient means of providing energy to a population that can afford a nuclear power plant. The main source of this energy is Uranium. This is a naturally occurring element found in rocks and seawater. It is the most heavy element in the periodic table, having 146 neutrons and 92 protons in its stable form. The instable form has 143 neutrons and this is the kind that is used in cores to create energy (UIC website)."
Tags: disposal, nuclear, radioactive, sun, waste, water
This paper tries to externalize the feasibility and optimality of the development of a nuclear fusion reactor as a source of energy for future consumption.
Abstract This paper discusses the inevitable need for developing alternative sources of energy in order to bridge the gap between the rapidly increasing fuel demand and the depleting resources available. This paper tries to analyze the potentials of nuclear fusion reactors as a reliable alternative to overcome this energy crisis. Though the theories propounded are still in the state of infancy, they hold relevance for satisfying the fuel demand in the future in both on earth as well in space stations. Fusion, explains the author, is a source of the sun's energy that offers a clean, potentially limitless source of electricity and power. Hence a magnetic fusion reactor by using plasma would manage to bring about the nuclear fusion reaction in a controlled way.The author shows how plasmais a new state of matter in which most of the atoms are ionized due to some sort of 'violence' and breaking away of the originally bound electrons. Within the plasma, colliding deuterium and tritium nuclei fuse into helium nuclei and release energy to be converted into electricity.
From the Paper "The concept of generation of usable energy from the nuclear fusion reactor is still at its state of infancy. Though both Bose and Einstein , in 1925 predicted the condensation of atoms into super dense states but still even after 76 years of extensive research the idea of a nuclear fusion reactor has not been physically implementable. Though nuclear fusion is the primary governing factor in the nuclear reactor design but a number of complex systems and their analysis need to be incorporated for its success. Currently, a number of significant projects are being pursued individually by the developed nations like the SST project, the Magnetic Mirror project and the combined efforts of scientists and governments from all over the world pooling their intelligence and resources to develop the International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER)."
Abstract This paper talks about the ways in which the shuttle is designed to overcome basic heat transfer problems during launch, orbit and re-entry. The main points in this paper are the active and passive systems in the TPS and the history of the shuttle design.
From the Paper "10...9...8...Patiently the Space Shuttle waits on the launch pad...7...6... everything is in place...5...4... all functions are working properly...3... the conditions are comfortable on the coast of Florida, and the temperature is nice and warm...2...1... IGNITION! (Figure #1) The sudden burn of the rockets jolts the humongous craft to life. As streams of flame shoot out its lower portion, the craft begins to inch skyward. In no time its speed has increased, and it begins hurtling through the air towards its mission. While still inside Earth's atmosphere, the airflow over the Shuttle begins to warm the craft's surface, until it becomes "white hot." Then, the craft breaks free of the atmosphere's restraints, plunging into the freezing void of outer space. The Space Shuttle must be able to withstand these temperature extremes and still accomplish its mission objectives. After the mission, as the craft returns to Earth, it again encounters tremendously high temperatures as it re-enters Earth's atmosphere. The Shuttle encounters a lot of atmospheric resistance and slows itself down through this phase, then finally glides to a comfortable rest at Edwards Air Force Base in sunny Southern California, where the astronauts and craft must prepare to begin the process all over again. These intense hot and cold extremes drive scientists and design engineers as they work to control the internal temperature of the space shuttle throughout the various phases of its journey. They do this by using many creative systems such as specially designed tiles and radiator systems, to both reflect and radiate heat that would otherwise be dangerous to the craft and crew."
Abstract This paper discusses what the universe is made up of, its age, how stars are formed and what is the future of our solar system. It discusses the history of the exploration of the universe. The author explains how In this century large telescopes are set up, far away from city lights and traffic to gather the best data for studying the skies. A brief overview of the theories on the origin of the universe is also given. The author concludes that although new theories are constantly being proposed and science is constantly to answer the question "Where did we come from"? , until now, no answer has satisfied everyone.
From the Paper "Man's fascination with the heavens is as old as recorded history itself. Astronomers from all civilizations"medieval to the present times"carefully observed the stars and their relative position in the night sky. Even in the medieval times, astronomers universally observed two features: that stars tended to drift westward with each passing night; and, despite this apparent movement, stars were always in a fixed position relative to each other. Anything that man could not explain, ending up fascinating him?as did the stars. It has been stated that when man loses his desire to explore the unknown, the human race will have sounded its own death knell."
Tags: universe, astronomy, stars, westward, observations, fixed, position
