Abstract The paper discusses philosopher David Hume's argument that there cannot be any genuine knowledge of the world other than what we are perceiving at that very moment. Hume argues that ideas are present in the mind and while they are produced by reality, they are copies of reality and not reality itself. The paper analyzes Hume's opinion that knowledge is a product of the mind and non-existent in the outer world.
From the Paper "Hume begins by noting that "all reasoning concerning matter of fact seem to be founded on the relation of cause and effect" (Hume 458). Hume then rejects cause and effect as an explanation for matters of fact. As Hume says, "Let an object be presented to a man of ever so strong natural reason and abilities; he will not be able, by the most accurate examination of its sensible qualities, to discover any of its causes or effects" (Hume 459). Cause and effect then, has its basis in past experience and cannot be arrived at in any other way. Thus, reason is not enough to determine a cause and effect, experience must also be used. Cause and effect then, is not a theory that offers an explanation of how knowledge can exist outside of the mind. Hume argues instead that repeated experience gives us "habit" so that if we see one thing, we automatically associate it with another, and in this way we come to understand things without experiencing them."
Abstract This paper looks at the growth of the science of psychology over time and the development of different concepts such as functionalism and structuralism. It discusses how psychology has its roots in philosophy and each school of psychology was formed largely as a reaction to the previous school, e.g., functionalism grew out of structuralism and humanism and cognitive psychology grew out of Gestalt psychology.
From the Paper "Ancient Greek philosophers? exploration of psychological topics such as epistemology, ethics and mental illness; the 17th century French Philosopher Rene Descartes and his theory of dualism; Thomas Hobbes and John Locke's theories which later became known as monism, and the field of physiology have all contributed significantly to the emergence of psychology as a separate science. The "birth" of psychology, however, is often traced to 1879 when Wilhelm Wundt began the first psychological laboratory in Leipzig, Germany, which also signaled the start of the school of psychology known as structuralism. Compared to earlier philosophers, Wundt's approach to the study of mind was much more scientific."
Abstract The paper shows that philosophers and psychologists have argued endlessly about the forces that motivate a person most, since the earliest time of recorded history. There are many theories about this issue, but one assertion that has always been made is that there are essentially two forces that motivate people: self-interest and fear. The paper argues in favour of this theory and shows why the author is in agreement of the fact that being motivated by self-interest and fear is part of human nature. The paper discusses how all human actions are motivated by a desire to move towards pleasure and to move away from pain. This moving toward pleasure covers all our actions based on self-interest, whether direct or indirect and moving away from pain constitutes all our actions taken to avoid fear.
From the Paper "Pursuit of self-interest and avoidance of fear has been seen as part of human nature. We must reflect on why this is so, since nature does not act without reason. Self-interest is often associated with a negative and undesirable human trait that is either to be denied or suppressed. It must be realized that self-interest is not just a negative feeling and may well be responsible for progress made by mankind. It is what motivates human beings to make inventions, to strive for excellence, to compete, to try and better ourselves and our lives. It is a valuable and positive natural instinct and nothing to be ashamed of."
From the Paper " The moral theory of Immanuel Kant is based on his concept of the good will. For Kant, moral knowledge is a prior, or existing before and in spite of the fact. That is, there are moral precepts which determine how men ought to behave, and these precepts do not depend on actual behavior. Instead, there are truths, moral precepts, which are to be applied to all behavior. We might say that we ought to tell the truth, for instance, and this tells us how to behave. Even if we all tell lies, though, this does not change the fact that we ought to tell the truth, so the precept does not depend on our behavior. We need not even be aware of the moral precept for it to be valid and applicable. Our moral knowledge and the moral precepts we seek to understand have their origin in the practical reason, which is reason in its practical, or moral, function..."
From the Paper "Thomas Aquinas wrote the Summa Theologica between 1265 and 1273. The third article of the Summa attempts to demonstrate in a rational manner the existence of God. The article consists of five short, almost cursory proofs, totalling less than three pages, and yet it remains one of the most influential pieces of scholastic theology ever written. Aquinas' general method was to try to show how God can be known from his effects, i.e. the world around us, and he limited himself, by and large, to arguments based on reason rather than revelation.
The Five Ways, as they have come to be called, are grounded in Aristotle's Metaphysics. Aquinas' mentor, Albert the Great, was one of the first scholars to put pagan philosophy to work in the service of Catholic theology and Aquinas carried this approach on to its zenith. It has been argued that ... "
From the Paper "Saint Augustine bases his beliefs concerning sin on theological considerations. This has to be the situation because sin is an act in thought, word, or deed that goes against God. Ultimately, the sin is offensive to God due to the fact that sin separates the human spirit from the Divine. Because God is Love, sin removes humankind from that Love, a condition most undesirable. Saint Augustine says: "Hear me, God. Alas for man's sin. So says man and you pity him; for you made him, but you did not make sin in him" (Confessions 23). Humankind has made sin, not God. Sin is part of the theology of Christianity, and Saint Augustine's approach is to view theology as a way to deal with sin.
When Saint Augustine discusses sin, he frequently reaches ... "
This paper examines Nietzsche's "Beyond Good and Evil": The "will to power" as the basic instinct of powerful individual's self-preservation and superiority over weaker individuals.
1,125 words (approx. 4.5 pages), 1 source, 1994, $ 39.95
From the Paper "Friedrich Nietzsche in Beyond Good and Evil comments on the tendency of psychologists to place the instinct for self-preservation in the role of the cardinal instinct of the organic being, but Nietzsche differs in this view and writes:
Psychologists should bethink themselves before putting down the instinct of self-preservation as the cardinal instinct of an organic being. A living thing seeks above all to discharge its strength--life itself is Will to Power; self-preservation is only one of the indirect and most frequent results thereof. In short, here, as everywhere else, let us beware of superfluous teleological principles!--one of which is the instinct of self-preservation.
The concept of the Will was derived by Nietzsche from ... "
Introduction
Possibly no trial in the annals of Western Legal Tradition has intrigued legal scholars and the academic community in general more than the Trial of Socrates. A 1988 article in Time Magazine said this:
In its impact on the minds and emotions of Western man, it is an event that can be compared only to the Passion and death of Jesus. After a lifetime devoted to the pursuit of truth and virtue, Socrates, at age 70, is put on trial, charged with dishonoring the gods and corrupting the youth of Athens. The sage makes an eloquent plea in self-defense but is nonetheless found guilty and condemned to die (Elson, 1988, 66)."
Abstract This paper explores the role of critical thinking in everyday life. Issues discussed include factors used in the decision-making process, barriers to critical thinking, and how critical thinking can be improved. The use of language, memory, and creativity in the critical-thinking process is also addressed. The paper concludes with a brief summary of its main points.
From the Paper "Like it or not, there is not a single aspect of our lives that is not governed by the thinking process. As employees, students, family members, and participants in various social groups, every day we have to think about things in order to make decisions about them. Those decisions may not always be deep and significant, but they are decisions that need to be thought about and made nonetheless."
Abstract Nineteenth century British philosopher John Stuart Mill was the most important proponent of utilitarianism, a theory of morality for determining the rightness or wrongness of any action. This paper looks at Mill's 1863 book "Utilitarianism" in which he codified the principles of utilitarianism. The paper shows that Mill's principle of utility is helpful in distinguishing the rightness or wrongness of an action from the motives of the actor or agent. This principle of utility led Mill to support liberal feminism which he saw as morally right because allowing women the chance to make intellectual contributions to society promoted happiness for the greater number of people.
From the Paper "People who sought to prohibit women from working may have had good motives, based on their religious beliefs or their fear of introducing social disorder. However, according to Mill, the result of these prohibitive actions was that society lost the potential contributions of educated women. Mill believed that the harm created by denying women's contributions to art and science far outweighed any potential good that resulted from maintaining the status quo. When judged by the principle of utility, the subjugation of women was thus a morally indefensible attitude that failed to promote the higher good. Despite their supposed good motives, people who fought against women's rights engaged in morally wrong actions."
Abstract This essay first outlines Locke's argument in Book II of "The Essay Concerning Human Understanding", illustrating the distinction between ideas of primary qualities and ideas of secondary qualities. The writer then examines the arguments of Berkeley in "A Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge" against this distinction and against the possibility of matter.
From the Paper "According to Locke there are two types of qualities found in bodies. First are the primary qualities of bodies, which are "utterly inseparable from the body, in what state soever it may be" (E., p. 502). To Locke, a primary quality exists independently of observation in every piece of matter within a body, regardless of the size of that piece: "division. . . only makes two or more distinct separate masses of matter of that which was one before" (E., p. 502). Therefore, primary qualities include the unchanging, mind-independent qualities of a body such as figure, motion or rest, number, extension, and solidity or impenetrability. Conversely, secondary qualities of bodies are "nothing in the objects themselves but powers to produce various sensations in us by their primary qualities" (E., p. 502). This power is attributable to the "bulk, figure, texture, and motion of their insensible parts" (E., p. 502)."
Tags: knowledge, independence, qualities, power, human
Abstract Confucianism is derived from the teachings of the philosopher K?ung Fu Tzu (Confucius) and has been embraced in various nations throughout history including Japan, Korea and China. China, in particular, embraced Confucianism as a basis for governmental practices and societal morality. This paper explains the main rules and teachings of the philosophy, including the tenant of Ren, "passages of life" and its ideas on government. The paper also discusses how the Han and Qin dynasties of China impacted the religion.
From the Paper "Confucianism is primarily seen as a set of beliefs that form the basis of government rather than a religion with sanctuaries and ministers. Additionally, Confucius never promoted himself as a god and was never worshipped as such. However, there were temples built to Confucius but they were only used to celebrate significant events. ("Confucianism") Confucius had definite opinions about the way that government should be. The philosopher believed that within government ?the sovereign is benevolent and honorable and the subjects are respectful and obedient.? ("Confucianism") In addition, he also believed that the sovereign should promote morality and be of high moral character. Confucius also believed that the key to creating anonymity between the classes was through education."
This paper discusses John Rawls' "A Theory of Justice", which presents a theory of justice that supports the liberal-democratic viewpoint of the rights and freedoms of individuals in society.
Abstract The paper states that the John Rawls' theory declares that no inborn benefits of political authority, substance riches or natural capability should irreversibly or overpoweringly establish life chances and that these morally subjective issues should not establish the value of political liberties to moral persons. The author points out that Rawls and numerous other moderate philosophers employed this theory as a weapon with which to impose warfare on the English nobility by which a minority was repressing monetarily and socially a majority. The author believes that, in the twentieth century, John Rawls's emphasis on impartiality has lured extra observations and stimulated extended concentration than any other exertion in ethical or opinionated philosophy.
Table of Contents
Introduction
The Origin of the Theory and the State of the Justice System at that Time
Justification
Constructivism
Utilitarianism
Intuitionism
Contrast with Kant's Theory
Impact of the Theory; Now and Then
From the Paper "Setting the juncture for his conjecture of justice Rawls aims at the departure of utilitarianism and labels it a "distribution problem". As stated by Rawls, utilitarianism grows erroneous if it disappoints to disburse concentration to how that welfare is circulated; there is nothing incorrect, however, with the utilitarian model of publicizing the common interests. The contentment of others cannot make up for the immense anguishes by a few. This is a sharing difficulty as when the pain is circulated in one location and the pleasure is circulated everyplace else, delight disappoints to recompense for the pain i.e. "one man's fortune is another man's gain". Or else if one endures at the present for some afterward reward, then the victim is satisfied later, than likewise the beneficiary of the anguish is afterward the receiver of the pleasure, equalizes it. Equally, it is unjust to compel one to compensate for one's sins but just if one compensates for himself. Utilitarians can't eliminate a definite type of discriminatory agreement for the reason that the reimbursements and afflictions are not disseminated reasonably by being oblivious to how that pleasure is scattered and in its place considering the figure of bliss. It is vital to observe that it is the injustice that plights Rawls not the inequality of the agreement. Such an unjust conclusion cannot survive in any moral organization. Therefore, it is no chance that considering this Rawls opts to name his conjecture "Justice as Fairness"."
Abstract Nativist thought, that which focuses on the idea that there are some "innate ideas existing prior to concrete experience (Fancher, 26), allows for the existence of archetypal knowledge and a communal unconscious. Empiricism is a philosophical doctrine that asserts that all knowledge is derived from experience. According to the empiricist, all ideas are derived from experience. Nativism, as espoused by Descartes, requires that the soul be embodied with knowledge and experience prior to association with the body.
Abstract This essay evaluates the death penalty from two perspectives: Kant's moral philosophy and Mill's views on utilitarianism. Other philosophers are discussed for the ways they interpret the moral philosophies of Kant and Mill. The essay concludes that Kant's basic principles regarding the value of human beings explicitly contradicts any rationale for the death penalty.
