Abstract This paper summarizes and analyzes the self-defense Socrates presented at his trial and explains how Socrates was condemned to die not because he did not mount a successful defense, but because his accusers were threatened by Socrates's wisdom and perseverance. The paper concludes by pointing out that Socrates defended himself successfully by proving he was not an evildoer and that he never intentionally corrupted the youth and that God alone is wise.
From the Paper "Socrates was known as one of the most influential Greek philosophers of his time. "The Apology of Socrates" offers a self-portrait based not on false gods or corruption, but rather on a vigilant attention to and exposure of common thinking and false wisdom. Socrates strongly believed that just behavior was better than injustice, and that living morally correct would bring about happiness and well-being. For his life, that is proven to be true. Socrates lived a righteous life, and died a happy man. Throughout the "Apology", Socrates is falsely accused of being a "doer of evil, who corrupts the youth; and who does not believe in the gods of the state" (733). Socrates? self defense was a success because throughout his trial, he was able to prove he was not an evil doer, that he did not corrupt the youth, and that there was no man wiser than God."
Abstract This paper presents Rene Descartes's philosophical approach to proving God's existence. The paper explores how Descartes takes us down a path of reasoning, which provides the logical proof for God's existence, not only persuading us with his ultimate definition of God and the proof provided for existence, but demonstrating the importance of skepticism and inquiry as the path to knowledge.
From the Paper "Those of us who believe in the existence of God, accept His existence unquestioningly. We have been raised to believe in the reality of His existence and do not have the courage to question. We assume that if we allowed ourselves the freedom of questioning we may conclude our reflections by doubting His existence or even denying it. Our denial would emerge from an awareness of the logic of scientific and logical evidence to prove the existence of God beyond a shadow of a doubt. However, where we might fear questioning, was questioned by Rene Descartes and, in fact, subjected to an intensive examination. However, instead of concluding that examination with a denial of God's existence, Descartes affirmed it. Although one may initially react to Descartes' questioning of the existence of God as potentially dangerous due to our assumption that it cannot be proven, either through reference to science or logic, Descartes takes us down a path of reasoning which provides the logic proof for that existence, not only persuading us with his ultimate definition of God and the proof provided for existence but demonstrating the importance of skepticism and inquiry as the path to knowledge."
Abstract In the philosophy of law, two competing factions each offer compelling arguments as to the basic nature, origin, authority and responsibility of law. These two theories are known as Natural Law Theory and Legal Positivism. This paper shows that while there are many disagreements between the two theories, at the heart of the argument is the questionable relationship between law and morality. The paper examines how Natural Law Theorists argue that there is an essential and innate overlap between law and morality, while Legal Positivists argue that while the decisions of law and morality do occasionally overlap, there is no natural relationship between them.
From the Paper "Legal Positivists rely on a sovereign to legislate law; this sovereign,
whether it be a monarch, an aristocracy, an elected parliament, or any other person or body that writes the law for a society. For a sovereign to be considered as such, most, if not all, of the population must follow the sovereign's laws, and there must be a threat of force to enforce the law. If either of these conditions are not met, the leader cannot claim to be a true sovereign entity. Also, the sovereign cannot be subject to another sovereign's authority, such as God; if a sovereign is to be the head of a society and the maker of laws, she must be invulnerable to persuasion or else she is not a sovereign."
This paper attempts to answer major questions pertaining to minds, bodies and existence from the dualist's standpoint and the eliminative materialist's stand point simultaneously.
1,790 words (approx. 7.2 pages), 3 sources, 2000, $ 57.95
From the Paper "The theory of Eliminative Materialism attempts to prove more about the physical world than dualism, and answers more fully questions of metaphysics concerning the point to human existence. The questions of cognitive sciences are general and particular questions addressing issues such as existence and what sorts of things can exist. Then there are the more particular questions like; Is there a soul?, What is the relationship of the soul and the human body, or the mind to the body? I will go over the major questions pertaining to minds, bodies and existence from the dualist's standpoint and the eliminative materialist's stand point simultaneously."
After contrasting the views of both thinkers, this paper presents another theory of knowledge, one that says experience, senses and innate & adventitious ideas are all factors which allow us to understand and gain insight on things.
1,784 words (approx. 7.1 pages), 2 sources, 1999, $ 57.95
From the Paper "Knowledge for us today is an awareness or understanding of something or someone; it is the fact or condition of knowing something with familiarity gained through experience or association. The theory of knowledge is a topic quite important in our modern thoughts of philosophy. Philosophers such as Plato hold a view that knowledge comes from within us and not from the senses, and Empedocles felt that knowledge was conveyed to human mind primarily by sensation. After contrasting both their points of views I would like to go into my own theory of knowledge, one that says experience, senses and innate & adventitious ideas are all factors which allow us to understand and gain insight on things."
How, through a careful look at Chomsky's life, philosophy of language, and contribution to the field of linguistics, one can see his overwhelming power over the now widely accepted notions regarding the discipline.
2,090 words (approx. 8.4 pages), 7 sources, 2000, $ 65.95
From the Paper "The work of Noam Chomsky overturned all former approaches to language, from ancient Greeks? to those of his own teachers, and challenged assumptions about linguistic research, including both empiricist and nonempiricist methods (Newmeyer 1986:66). One of modern linguistics most influential contributors, Noam Chomsky, rose from a humble background to not only add fresh insight, but to revolutionize the way the world thought of linguistics as a discipline. Chomsky is a renowned professor of linguistics at MIT, in addition to being one of North America's most prominent political dissidents; he has authored over 30 political books dissecting such issues as U.S. intervention in the developing world, the political economy of human rights and the propaganda role of corporate media. This care for the unvoiced people of the world shines through in his theory of the innateness and creativity of language. Through a careful look at Chomsky's life, philosophy of language, and contribution to the field of linguistics, one can see his overwhelming power over the now widely accepted notions regarding the discipline. His substantial addition to the field cannot be overlooked in a survey of linguistics, for he single-handedly created numerous breakthroughs in theories and research styles."
This paper examines the fact that although both theorists differ moderately in their approaches and definitions of despotism of the majority, they agree it hinders the liberty and individuality of the citizens and is tyrannical.
1,844 words (approx. 7.4 pages), 2 sources, 1998, $ 59.95
From the Paper "Political theorists have long pondered the formula for a successful governing system. In doing so, despotism and majoritarian rule have arisen as two possible forms of government. John Stuart Mill in On Liberty, and Alexi de Tocqueville, in Democracy in America, both refute the idea of despotic rule, not of a single ruler, but of the majority. The ?tyranny of the majority,?[1] as Mill describes, is worse than straightforward dictatorship and should be avoided. Tocqueville concurs that unlimited power, in the hands of an absolute majority that is able to exercise both physical and moral control, is dangerous to the sovereignty of the individual. "
From the Paper "Science can be broadly defined as the development of knowledge about the physical world. The history of science is the explanation of the development of this knowledge. Science is often viewed as cumulative and progressive by its nature. Such views, however, can have profound implications because not all scientists or theorists follow the cumulative view. Scientists use both deductive and inductive reasoning to hypothesize the possibility of a useful theory. They also seem to be able to decide or discover more easily which theories are false rather than which theories are true. While the proving or disproving of scientific theory plays a vital part in the growth of science and scientific inquiry, the way that the actual progress or creation and discovery of new ideas and paradigms of thought is at the center of scientific research. Does science move forward in a cumulative and progressive manner or does it move forward in leaps and bounds? "
From the Paper "The concept of relativism makes many ideas and concepts impossible to argue. The idea that every person and group acts and is entitled to live by their own perception of the truth allows such a difference in opinions that consilience among them seems to be impossible. Friedrich Nietszche wrote that we had to "deconstruct" truth because we can?t allow ourselves to rely on truths that we think are absolute. To rely on an absolute truth is to put your trust into something that may prove false. John Stuart Mill wrote that an individual should be able to seek happiness and liberty, as long as that search does not encroach upon the happiness and liberty of another. In a sense, he speculated that each man has to search for his own truth. In finding his own truth, Nietszche would urge us to question those truths constantly, to make sure in ourselves that what we are believing in is true. "
Abstract This is a persuasive paper that cites several of David Hume's major theories about the non-existence of a god and refutes them, demonstrating that Hume is inaccurate and that God does indeed exist.
From the Paper "This paper shall examine and counter David Hume's argument that God does not exist. The philosopher, Hume, did not think highly of religion and once referred to all organized religions as "the play-some whimsies of monkeys in human shape." (Hume: 362) Hume actively worked to counter the existing predispositions of major organized religions during his period. Hume suggested in his treatise "Dialogues Concerning Natural Religions" that the answer to the dilemma of whether or not God exists can be broken into a series of proofs on the qualities of evil. Hume suggests that the reason that God absolutely cannot exists is because there are qualities within the world that can only be defined as being evil. According to Hume, the very presence of evil serves to negate the presence of God. This can best be explained in a series of stages."
Abstract The author argues that theism is irrational. Human behaviour, however, is not always based on reason, and the fact that an enormous number of people unquestioningly believe in the existence of God seems to support this. Therefore, the theists? beliefs must be based on something other than rationality. This basis is faith.
From the Paper "Belief in the existence of God is irrational. Ontological, cosmological and teleological arguments can all be proven to be logically flawed. In addition, the existence of evil is incompatible with the existence of a Judeo-Christian God. Faith, then, is the basis upon which a belief in God must rest."
Abstract This paper provides a detailed description of how the process of cloning is completed. The author discusses the benefits of cloning to our society, as well as the disadvantages. The final section includes the author's own biased conclusion based on his/her research.
From the Paper "Genetic cloning is a scientific practice that will affect our lives for generations to come. Is our society ready for such drastic changes in medicine? Will our government be able to develop legislation that will satisfy both people "for" and "against" cloning? This is perhaps the biggest scientific breakthrough of the century and will surface even more as this practice becomes more popular. Genetic cloning causes more debates and more dilemmas than any other practice in history."
Abstract After defining 'consciousness' in this paper, the author shows that the very fact that we all have privileged access to our consciousness and cannot analyze it from an outsider's point-of-view is a major reason why consciousness remains so mysterious. In addition, he puts forward his view that inevitably, a scientific explanation of consciousness will be possible.
From the Paper "It is very hard to find an analogy to describe consciousness. We know nothing in the scientific world that draws a parallel with it. Consciousness is unable to be measured or analysed because at present we know of no connection between itself and the physical body, even if there happens to be a portion of the brain where consciousness is localised. We all experience privileged access to our own consciousness, yet how can we determine for sure that other people and creatures are also conscious beings when there is no sure-fire way to prove this? How do chemical reactions and neural processes in the body trigger conscious events? This is what makes consciousness so mysterious. We take it for granted and all regard ourselves as conscious beings, yet very rarely do we actually stop to think about what it is and how it came to be."
Abstract This paper discusses the philosophy of good life given by the great thinker Aristotle. It looks at Aristotle's view that there are certain external and internal goods available to man, and it is through the attainment of internal goods that man is able to live a life that can be identified as a "good life".
From the Paper "Aristotle was the prized student of Socrates and his works though are not widely available are still considered to be of great significant to the world of euphemism. The philosophical thought is incomplete without the works of Aristotle as his contribution is huge and some of his views are studies even today by the students of philosophy. Aristotle's theory of a good life is based one certain actions and virtues which fall in the realm of ethics. It was the view of Aristotle that good life means a man should act while in possession of certain external goods. By this it means that one should possess all moral and intellectual virtues in order to qualify as someone with a good life. The moral virtues to him were prudence, justice, fortitude and temperance. All these virtues are based on reason and it was the Aristotelian view that reason and logic should be given precedence over passion. Intellectual virtues are based on pure theoretical contemplation and they cannot be considered very practical as they seem to arise from Aristotle's views on logic and a Stoic philosophy which meant that man must first not act purely on impulse or passion but should think carefully before acting."
Abstract This paper provides a look at human cloning, and examines the discrimination dimension of the cloning process. The author discusses the pros and cons of cloning, religious opposition, and societal worries. The paper also discusses the problem of overpopulation, financial costs of cloning, and potential discrimination of clones from humans.
From the Paper "Genetics is of increasing importance in the world of the 21st century. New developments in this field are finding more and more applications in every day life. Concerns about this science, due to its inherent conflicts with religious doctrine and traditional norms and unfamiliarity to the public have been frequently presented in the media. Recently, the public perception of genetics has appeared around such as human cloning. While many aspects of this subject are poorly understood, it isn?t in doubt that there raise many questions of great complexity."
