Abstract His ontological argument (a priori) and 'a posteriori demonstration of God's existence. Concept of perfection. Proofs of God's existence. Examining the reality of God. Descartes' belief in God the Giver and Creator. Free will of man as proof. Differences between existence of God & essence of God. Flaws in Descartes' reasoning.
From the Paper "Descartes and God
"More consequences for thought and action follow from the affirmation or denial of God than from answering any other basic question" (Hutchins 543). It is a fact that, long before Descartes, Man often thought of himself as the supreme being of the Universe, and still obedient to, or believing in, or trusting some superhuman Being called God.
While for millennia, philosophers have debated the idea or ideas of God, Descartes states that "ONE idea alone, becomes the basis for such an inference. He supplements his a priori or ontological argument with what he calls 'a posteriori demonstration of God's existence from the mere idea that God exists in us'" (Hutchins 554). God exists, Descartes writes, because "He possesses every sort of perfection…(and) existence is one of them" "
Abstract Discusses Ludwig Wittgenstein's idea of sensation. Linkage of the sensations (art, aesthetics, religion) as individual sensations linked by language. Idea that language is unexact means of describing the senses. Language games as semantics. The language of aesthetics. Wittgenstein's exercises. Wittgenstein's theories and changing concept of language games. Notion of human culture.
From the Paper "LANGUAGE GAMES
INTRODUCTION AND THESIS:
Wittgenstein separates the idea of a sensation with that of a word to describe it. How often, for example, have we heard someone say "I feel; your pain!" which, as Wittgenstein would be prompt to point out, is impossible. The sensations, art, aesthetics, and religion are individual sensations, with a communal linkage called "language". But, compared to one's sensations, language is the most inexact means of describing what one feels or senses.
People, as Wittgenstein theorizes, "cannot be said to learn of my sensations only from my behaviour, for I cannot be said to learn of them-I have them" (Wittgenstein, 1953, p. 89). On the other hand, this sort of "investigation" of sensations makes Wittgenstein ask whether "..."
This paper discusses and compares and contrasts Aristotelian teliology and perspective on the objectivity of morality with the Platonic idea of ethical rationalism and the Forms.
Abstract The paper shows how Plato essentially believes in the relativity of morality whereas as Aristotle does not, but instead believes that human beings, like nature, have an inherent purpose that we are designed to aspire to. Plato, on the other hand, believes that there are undefinable Forms, like moral goals, that can be seen, appreciated and reached for in many different ways, thus making hm an ethical relativist, rather than a believer in moral objectivity.
From the Paper "Both Plato (B.C.E. 428 ? 347/8) and Aristotle (384 - 322 B.C) are known for their ageless philosophy and revolutionary views. Some contemporary philosophers go so far as to suggest that these men are "without equal in the history of human thought" (Cohen, Curd, and Reeve). Although neither man set out to transform the perspectives of the known world with regards to ethics and morality, both succeeded in doing so infinitely beyond what they lived to witness. To a great extent, their views actually differ; yet compliment one another in defining morality. Combined; their works identified and explained morality, shaping the understanding of much of the western world for centuries."
A discussion of whether science and religion are fundamentally opposed. The paper is based on F. Turner's work on the professionalization of science in 19th century Britain.
Abstract This paper examines the emergence in 19th century Britain of science as a respected body of professionals, rather than as an amateur hobby of the idle rich. The paper reviews the article "The Victorian Conflict between Science and Religion: A Professional Dimension" by F. Turner. It looks at how the drive to raise professional standards within the new disciplines led to an increasing refusal to compromise scientific integrity to fit in with Church doctrine. This paper examines whether this conflict was caused by a fundamental opposition of science and religion or merely by individuals trying to resist or encourage the huge social changes occurring at the time.
From the Paper "At the beginning of the nineteenth century, the clergy had a huge amount of influence on British society in terms of government, school and University education, patronage and the prestige, authority and reverence given to them by all social classes. Science, on the other hand, was nothing but a disunited collection of amateurs, who were not even granted their own collective noun. The term "scientist", although coined in 1834 by Reverend Whewell, did not come into popular use until the 1890s. Science in this early period was very much influenced by religion and many (though increasingly not all) both within and outside the scientific community considered it perfectly acceptable and natural for research to be conducted under the authority of and be limited by Church doctrine."
Abstract This paper uses Kai Nielson's writings to define the theory of egalitarianism and critique it. The paper shows how, of all the substantive political theories, egalitarianism offers the least support for its position. Aided by the views expressed in Kai Nielson's ?Radical Egalitarianism", this paper first gives a brief synopsis of the theory and then points to some of its shortcomings.
From the Paper "According to Nielson, one of the main proponents of egalitarianism, equality of condition should be the goal of any responsible society. One of the assumptions underpinning this idea is that people are equal in the only important respect in which the doling out of rights pertains. That is, when available resources are limited, "we should first, where considerations of desert are not at issue, distribute according to stringency of need" (202) for "it is only fair" (205). Further, Nielson urges, while aiming at equality of condition, we must preserve as a parallel goal autonomy for all and "at a condition where everyone alike, to the fullest extent possible, has his or her needs and wants satisfied" (202)."
Abstract The author believes that one of the ideas most expounded by John Locke was his belief that all men have been created free and equal by God. The paper points out that Locke said that God gave man "certain rights that shall not be taken away from him, those rights being life, liberty, health and possessions; but, in the "Declaration of Independence", the pursuit of happiness is mentioned instead of possessions. The author concludes that men tend to remain passive in times when action is necessary on the assumption that someone else will instigate a change. Table presentations.
From the Paper "Men give their consent to be governed: therefore, the true power of the government is derived from the consent of the governed, as no people can be suppressed unwillingly for too long a time when freedom stirs in their souls. Once a man enters into a united political society, thereby submitting himself to the power, which he and his fellow citizens have bestowed upon his government; he is bound by obligation to uphold the laws that have been established by the government for the benefit of the community."
Abstract This paper explains that the skeptical arguments of the First Meditation avoid doubting rational belief and knowledge. This paper states that the belief in God is an important part of Descartes? defense of dualism and presents itself as a truth in the First Meditation. The author believes that Descartes makes several statements that would lead one to conclude that it is possible just to know things versus knowing things for certain.
From the Paper "In the argument from dreaming, it is possible to doubt composite things in the dream, but he states that he cannot doubt the simple and universal parts from which they are constructed such as shape, quantity, size, and time because these are derived from real experience, much like paintings that draw on real things. Therefore, we cannot doubt studies based on simple things such as arithmetic and astronomy, but can doubt studies based on composite things such as medicine, astronomy or physics."
Abstract Behaviorism, as described by philosopher B.F. Skinner in his work "Walden Two", is a scientific manner of understanding human actions as based on a certain set of principles. The paper examines Skinner's view that all actions are the result of a series of determined factors in "competition" with each other. Whichever factor proves to be dominant will determine the final action. The paper argues that while these factors can be "charted" to determine the probable end results of human action, it should be noted that these factors are not always totally predictable. It shows that Skinner, though, would simply argue that this lack of predictability was merely a technical problem that would eventually be resolved.
From the Paper "Finally there exists the problem of ultimate control. His whole concept of society is to be based on regulated planning to produce favourable situations, but who or what would be responsible for this centralized control. Skinner proposes that the "charlatans" who now have control over certain segmented areas will be replaced when all is "united", but he does not suggest who it is that will replace them. Obviously someone or something must be in overall command of this series of controls, but on what basis will this be decided."
Abstract This paper explains how conflict is part of everyday life, yet many adults fail to achieve successful conflict revolution. It examines the theory of critical thinking, which is one approach that shows promise, and what is needed is adult education to teach peace as the key to personal and social change. It discusses how critical thinking emerges form the theories of Mezirow and Brookfield and enables the individual to think differently about conflict. Critical thinking leads to conflict resolution, and the theoretical assumptions and alternatives are noted by the author as he shows different strategies for conflict resolution leading to suggestions for practical techniques to teach critical thinking and relate it to conflict resolution.
From the Paper "The individual and his or her work situation are affected by how they handle such issues as conflict resolution, stress management, interpersonal communication, and non-verbal communication. These dimensions of everyday life have to be addressed by everyone, and how well they manage to do this determines their own sense of well-being and self-esteem on the one hand, and how they are viewed by observers on the other. There is a considerable body of literature indicating how important these dimensions are to the person and to the person's social standing as well as offering advice and guidance on how best to achieve control of these dimensions. O. Randall Braman indicates the importance of the issue and calls on educators to fulfill their function of preparing the young for their adult roles in life by "teaching peace to adults" through the application of critical thinking to conflict situations."
Abstract Both Immanuel Kant and David Hume hold that community, rather than merely individual response, plays a major role in the judgment of taste. Both Kant and Hume also hold that any single individual's judgment of taste is not superior over another's. The paper explains that for there to be a meaningful definition of "judgment of taste," there must be some measure which transcends limited comparisons between individual judgment. For these two philosophers, the author finds, this measure is in part in the thing being presented and perceived and in part in the community of individuals doing the perceiving and responding. Nevertheless, the paper shows that the best their grand thinking achieves is that judgment of taste is achieved only through some sort of positive consensus won by an object over a long period of time and, preferably, over several cultures as well. It argues that the fact that the works they refer to are exclusively by white European males does not support the argument about the importance of cross-cultural judgment.
From the Paper "Still, even in such ideal circumstances, the individual will simply never be free of the "interest" which works to prejudice the individual's judgment on both the conscious and unconscious levels. If individual prejudice could be eliminated, of course, there would be no need for the philosophers to rely on the "community" aspect of the judgment of taste. The basis of this community aspect is a consensus, however Kant and Hume dress it up. If a work of art, for example, endures through generations and even centuries as an admired piece of work, as one which impresses the mind and stirs the emotions, then it can be said to have achieved a superior judgment of taste from the community."
Abstract This paper examines the characteristics of science and religion and their interactions to point out their compatibility. It looks at how the common source of conflict between science is that religion makes the assumption that the universe has been designed and created and is guided by supernatural forces or supernatural being; while science, on the other hand, assumed there are no immaterial or supernatural forces and all forces in the universe behave in an ultimately objective way. It assesses how although the worlds of religion and science are clearly separated from each other, there exists between the two a relationship and dependencies. The views of Albert Einstein, David Hume and some other philosophers are also discussed.
From the Paper "In the spring of 1633, Galileo Galilei was delivered before the dreaded Roman Inquisition to be tried on charges of heresy. He was denounced "for holding the false doctrine"that the sun is the center of the world and immovable, and that the earth moves.? Galileo was found guilty and forced to renounce his view. Ill and broken in spirit, he was sentenced to a life of perpetual imprisonment and penance. In the nineteenth century, Charles Darwin was mocked and maligned for claiming that all livings evolved from lower life forms. Those two classical conflicts along with many other conflicts between science and religion have arisen throughout the history of human."
Abstract Philosophers have held different ideas about the nature of freedom and human beings' responsibility for their own liberty. A review of three conceptions of freedom in this paper, held by John Locke, Jean-Jacques Rousseau and John Dewey, demonstrates how such ideas were often developed in direct relationship to the writers' own times and circumstances. The paper shows that Locke was an Englishman living in a nation where certain rights were guaranteed but a balance had to be maintained between the rights of individuals and the power of the crown. Rousseau wrote in the shadow of the despotism inherent in the absolute monarchy of France. It shows that Dewey lived in the world's first representative democracy, where freedom had long been guaranteed and its exercise was the responsibility of the individual.
From the Paper "Each of these three conceptions opposes its idea of freedom to the oppressiveness of tyranny and each places responsibility for securing freedom on human beings themselves. But where Locke saw this as an occasional matter that arose when tyrants gained control of government, Rousseau believed that individuals, having imposed their corrupt institutions on themselves by giving up too much of their freedom, needed to rid themselves of these limiting conditions and replace them with new institutions that worked in accordance with the natural liberty that had been forfeited by civilized humanity. Dewey, who lived, after all, in a representative democracy, disregarded such concerns and saw it as each individual's responsibility to expand her/his sphere of action by making intelligent choices--regardless of whether such choices involved action within one's family, one's profession, or one's society."
Abstract This research examines the concept of faithfulness as it relates to religion. The research sets forth the context for looking at the religious principles that reflect moral character and then discusses how faithfulness to God's principles reflects a commitment to moral thought and action, as well as a faith and trust in God.
From the Paper "The life of faith might seem to involve a simple idea about belief in God, but in fact faith is a very complex concept. The term is used in various ways in the Christian tradition. There is of course the famous statement of Jesus when he calms the storm in the sea of Galilee: "Why are ye fearful, O ye of little faith?" (Matt. 8:26). In that context, faith is to be interpreted as the equivalent of absolute trust, or more specifically, the equivalent of man's unquestioned trust in God. The spiritual experience of trust is thereby interpreted as the actual experience of faith. This idea is also in the background of Paul's injunction to the Corinthians, in his discourse about how the first-century Christian community ought to behave: "God is faithful, who will not suffer you to be tempted above that ye are able; but will with the temptation also make a way to escape, that ye may be able to bear it (I Cor. 10.13). Psalm 91 makes a similar point, characterizing the Lord as "my refuge and my fortress: my God; in him will I trust . . . He shall cover thee with his feathers, and under his wings shalt thou trust: his truth shall be thy shield and buckler." In The Book of Common Prayer, the latter line of the Psalm runs thus: "his faithfulness and truth shall be thy shield and buckler." The slight difference in the meaning of faith conveyed in these various contexts is that faith is not a one-way street, inasmuch as those who do have faith are said to be able to rely on God's good will and/or providence in situations of moral uncertainty."
Abstract This paper examines how Henry David Thoreau, in "Walden", or "Life in the Woods", describes, among many other experiences, the transcendental life-style he experienced in his two-year experiment at Walden Pond. It looks at how the experiment at Walden was for Thoreau an attempt to live within nature, to "transcend" not real life but the prison of society and conformity which alienates man from himself, from others and from the spiritual reality which is the essence of nature. It shows how although Thoreau did not consider himself and would never have considered himself, a member of any group which confined his individualism and independence, his outlook on life, nature and man's primary concerns in life and nature coincided with many of the essential Transcendentalist principles. His experiences and writings in Walden reflect his alignment with the Transcendentalists.
From the Paper "Thoreau's transcendentalism is in part simply living in nature simply and economically, nurturing and restoring his spirit through a subtle communion with nature, a communion which does not negate the mind and reason, but which exercises and strengthens the mind and reason. His focus on the details of living economically in nature bespeaks the kind of balance in which the animals and plants in the ecology also live. He takes from nature only what he needs and he uses what efficiently everything he takes."
Abstract This paper looks at utilitarianism or the principle of utility whose basis is the idea that pleasure and happiness are intrinsically valuable, that pain and suffering are intrinsically invaluable and that anything else has value only in its causing happiness or preventing suffering.
Outline
Introduction: What is Utility?
The Moral Theory of Consequentialism
Consequentialism and Utilitarianism
"Right" and "Wrong"
Utilitarianism and Equality
Negative Utilitarianism
Criticism of Utilitarianism
Conclusions
From the Paper "Consequentialists typically take one of three views about what is intrinsically good. Hedonistic consequentialists hold that the only thing that is intrinsically good is pleasure. Eudaimonistic consequentialists hold that the only thing that is intrinsically good is happiness, which on some views is a broader notion than pleasure. Third, preferential consequentialists hold that what is intrinsically good is desire satisfaction, or the satisfaction of preferences. If all one ever wanted was pleasure or happiness, this would reduce to one of the other views, but in fact most seem to have desires for things other than their own pleasure or happiness, for example the wellbeing of those close to them (Sidgwick, 1998, 34)."
