A book review. The article looks at the contemporary significance of Rousseau's ideas about education and social responsibility. It views some of the current practices in the light of those ideas.
Abstract The paper examines Rousseau's educational philosophy in "Emile" against the background of its period and from a contemporary perspective. The author believes that it may seem to us that his ideas are widly held nowadays, but in fact the modern education system does not practice or implement these notions.
From the Paper "Rousseau stressed that a child's way of dealing and looking at the world is indeed a child's way and not that of a little adult. (90) According to the philosopher, rushing a child would produce immature fruits. When it comes to moral development, "one cannot advance too slowly nor consolidate oneself too well at each step." (99) While there is much debate over this subject and it may not be our intention, the reality is that we don't allow children to be children in society today. Through the media they are exposed to the adult world. In fact, considering that Rousseau thought it was best to take a child out of 18th century society altogether for his education, imagine then how corruptive he would have considered our own pervasive culture with its continual negative and avaricious influences. "Each age, each condition of life, has its suitable perfection, a sort of maturity proper to it." (158)"
Abstract This paper discusses the philosophies of Aristotle, Immanuel Kant, David Hume and John Stuart Mill, all acclaimed philosophers who each claim that their respective approch to ethics is dependent on the proper exercise of practical judgment. It shows how Aristotle's thoughts are more of a generalization without any guiding principles for the practical decision making process while Hume's theory is more cogitative and lies centered on a cognitive reasoning in the role of a detached observer. It examines how Kant's reasoning on ethics seems more apt, simplistic but practical applications may result in unacceptable results, while Mill's philosophy seems to be the best particularly his definition of a good action as being good not for oneself alone but to a lot of people augurs well for the society as a whole.
From the Paper "Immanuel Kant is a philosopher of the eighteenth century. His greatness was reflected in his first published work "Critique of pure reasoning"(1781). The central theme of Kant's approach to ethics is that he considers human beings as having "dual consciousness". Herein he differs from Aristotle who did not consider the concept of duality. Kant views humans as both intelligent and at the same time not devoid of non-rational impulses. Hence he argues that there is a need for moral principles to guide in our decision making. Kant's argument is based on the point that Humans endowed with the reasoning are also prone to succumb to non-rational impulses. So Kant proposes that moral actions result when reason prevails over these Non rational impulses."
Abstract This paper concerns the philosophy of the mind and attempts to answer the question of whether dualism provides an acceptable account of the mind. In doing so, the fundamental arguments and problems associated with dualism are discussed and analyzed. This paper assesses the plausibility of a number of different forms of dualism such as Descarte's cartesian dualism, property dualism and epiphenomenalism.
From the Paper "For centuries, philosophers have debated the ontological problem of the mind. Through introspection, we know that we, and believe others possess a conscious intelligence that has the ability to register emotions, interpret sensations and perform reason. But where do such abilities originate? In what medium do they take place and how is it that our mental phenomena such as desires and beliefs seem to be able to causally act on the physical world? Dualism is just one of many theories that have sought to find answers to such intriguing questions. Unlike materialist theories that optimistically asserts that all mental phenomena can eventually be explained through physics and neurological science, dualists argue that mental phenomena is so far removed from anything physical that it requires the existence of a non-physical entity or property. Since, as yet science is unable to fully explain all mental phenomena such as consciousness, perhaps dualism is a plausible alternative. Is any form of dualism plausible?"
Abstract This essay focuses on Plato's clever use of metaphors in the "Allegory of the Cave". This essay discusses Plato, his philosophy, his teaching and why the "Allegory of the Cave" was so good at explaining his ideas. The author explains the Platonic theory of the Forms. Also examined are possible critiques and strengths in terms of criticism to human understanding.
From the Paper "Plato believed in the Platonic theory of the Forms. The world in which we ourselves live in, which we would class is real, is in fact not real at all. It is merely a shadow of the real world, the world of the Perfect Forms. He believed that the world is constantly changing, but the reality, the forms behind are constant. He taught that the world we live in and believe is real is nothing more than a materialistic world and everything in it is an imperfect copy of the perfect forms. ?The world that we see is not the real world, the true world is beyond our physical senses."
Abstract His ontological argument (a priori) and 'a posteriori demonstration of God's existence. Concept of perfection. Proofs of God's existence. Examining the reality of God. Descartes' belief in God the Giver and Creator. Free will of man as proof. Differences between existence of God & essence of God. Flaws in Descartes' reasoning.
From the Paper "Descartes and God
"More consequences for thought and action follow from the affirmation or denial of God than from answering any other basic question" (Hutchins 543). It is a fact that, long before Descartes, Man often thought of himself as the supreme being of the Universe, and still obedient to, or believing in, or trusting some superhuman Being called God.
While for millennia, philosophers have debated the idea or ideas of God, Descartes states that "ONE idea alone, becomes the basis for such an inference. He supplements his a priori or ontological argument with what he calls 'a posteriori demonstration of God's existence from the mere idea that God exists in us'" (Hutchins 554). God exists, Descartes writes, because "He possesses every sort of perfection…(and) existence is one of them" "
Abstract Discusses Ludwig Wittgenstein's idea of sensation. Linkage of the sensations (art, aesthetics, religion) as individual sensations linked by language. Idea that language is unexact means of describing the senses. Language games as semantics. The language of aesthetics. Wittgenstein's exercises. Wittgenstein's theories and changing concept of language games. Notion of human culture.
From the Paper "LANGUAGE GAMES
INTRODUCTION AND THESIS:
Wittgenstein separates the idea of a sensation with that of a word to describe it. How often, for example, have we heard someone say "I feel; your pain!" which, as Wittgenstein would be prompt to point out, is impossible. The sensations, art, aesthetics, and religion are individual sensations, with a communal linkage called "language". But, compared to one's sensations, language is the most inexact means of describing what one feels or senses.
People, as Wittgenstein theorizes, "cannot be said to learn of my sensations only from my behaviour, for I cannot be said to learn of them-I have them" (Wittgenstein, 1953, p. 89). On the other hand, this sort of "investigation" of sensations makes Wittgenstein ask whether "..."
This paper discusses and compares and contrasts Aristotelian teliology and perspective on the objectivity of morality with the Platonic idea of ethical rationalism and the Forms.
Abstract The paper shows how Plato essentially believes in the relativity of morality whereas as Aristotle does not, but instead believes that human beings, like nature, have an inherent purpose that we are designed to aspire to. Plato, on the other hand, believes that there are undefinable Forms, like moral goals, that can be seen, appreciated and reached for in many different ways, thus making hm an ethical relativist, rather than a believer in moral objectivity.
From the Paper "Both Plato (B.C.E. 428 ? 347/8) and Aristotle (384 - 322 B.C) are known for their ageless philosophy and revolutionary views. Some contemporary philosophers go so far as to suggest that these men are "without equal in the history of human thought" (Cohen, Curd, and Reeve). Although neither man set out to transform the perspectives of the known world with regards to ethics and morality, both succeeded in doing so infinitely beyond what they lived to witness. To a great extent, their views actually differ; yet compliment one another in defining morality. Combined; their works identified and explained morality, shaping the understanding of much of the western world for centuries."
A discussion of whether science and religion are fundamentally opposed. The paper is based on F. Turner's work on the professionalization of science in 19th century Britain.
Abstract This paper examines the emergence in 19th century Britain of science as a respected body of professionals, rather than as an amateur hobby of the idle rich. The paper reviews the article "The Victorian Conflict between Science and Religion: A Professional Dimension" by F. Turner. It looks at how the drive to raise professional standards within the new disciplines led to an increasing refusal to compromise scientific integrity to fit in with Church doctrine. This paper examines whether this conflict was caused by a fundamental opposition of science and religion or merely by individuals trying to resist or encourage the huge social changes occurring at the time.
From the Paper "At the beginning of the nineteenth century, the clergy had a huge amount of influence on British society in terms of government, school and University education, patronage and the prestige, authority and reverence given to them by all social classes. Science, on the other hand, was nothing but a disunited collection of amateurs, who were not even granted their own collective noun. The term "scientist", although coined in 1834 by Reverend Whewell, did not come into popular use until the 1890s. Science in this early period was very much influenced by religion and many (though increasingly not all) both within and outside the scientific community considered it perfectly acceptable and natural for research to be conducted under the authority of and be limited by Church doctrine."
Abstract This paper uses Kai Nielson's writings to define the theory of egalitarianism and critique it. The paper shows how, of all the substantive political theories, egalitarianism offers the least support for its position. Aided by the views expressed in Kai Nielson's ?Radical Egalitarianism", this paper first gives a brief synopsis of the theory and then points to some of its shortcomings.
From the Paper "According to Nielson, one of the main proponents of egalitarianism, equality of condition should be the goal of any responsible society. One of the assumptions underpinning this idea is that people are equal in the only important respect in which the doling out of rights pertains. That is, when available resources are limited, "we should first, where considerations of desert are not at issue, distribute according to stringency of need" (202) for "it is only fair" (205). Further, Nielson urges, while aiming at equality of condition, we must preserve as a parallel goal autonomy for all and "at a condition where everyone alike, to the fullest extent possible, has his or her needs and wants satisfied" (202)."
Abstract The author believes that one of the ideas most expounded by John Locke was his belief that all men have been created free and equal by God. The paper points out that Locke said that God gave man "certain rights that shall not be taken away from him, those rights being life, liberty, health and possessions; but, in the "Declaration of Independence", the pursuit of happiness is mentioned instead of possessions. The author concludes that men tend to remain passive in times when action is necessary on the assumption that someone else will instigate a change. Table presentations.
From the Paper "Men give their consent to be governed: therefore, the true power of the government is derived from the consent of the governed, as no people can be suppressed unwillingly for too long a time when freedom stirs in their souls. Once a man enters into a united political society, thereby submitting himself to the power, which he and his fellow citizens have bestowed upon his government; he is bound by obligation to uphold the laws that have been established by the government for the benefit of the community."
Abstract This paper explains that the skeptical arguments of the First Meditation avoid doubting rational belief and knowledge. This paper states that the belief in God is an important part of Descartes? defense of dualism and presents itself as a truth in the First Meditation. The author believes that Descartes makes several statements that would lead one to conclude that it is possible just to know things versus knowing things for certain.
From the Paper "In the argument from dreaming, it is possible to doubt composite things in the dream, but he states that he cannot doubt the simple and universal parts from which they are constructed such as shape, quantity, size, and time because these are derived from real experience, much like paintings that draw on real things. Therefore, we cannot doubt studies based on simple things such as arithmetic and astronomy, but can doubt studies based on composite things such as medicine, astronomy or physics."
Abstract Behaviorism, as described by philosopher B.F. Skinner in his work "Walden Two", is a scientific manner of understanding human actions as based on a certain set of principles. The paper examines Skinner's view that all actions are the result of a series of determined factors in "competition" with each other. Whichever factor proves to be dominant will determine the final action. The paper argues that while these factors can be "charted" to determine the probable end results of human action, it should be noted that these factors are not always totally predictable. It shows that Skinner, though, would simply argue that this lack of predictability was merely a technical problem that would eventually be resolved.
From the Paper "Finally there exists the problem of ultimate control. His whole concept of society is to be based on regulated planning to produce favourable situations, but who or what would be responsible for this centralized control. Skinner proposes that the "charlatans" who now have control over certain segmented areas will be replaced when all is "united", but he does not suggest who it is that will replace them. Obviously someone or something must be in overall command of this series of controls, but on what basis will this be decided."
Abstract This paper explains how conflict is part of everyday life, yet many adults fail to achieve successful conflict revolution. It examines the theory of critical thinking, which is one approach that shows promise, and what is needed is adult education to teach peace as the key to personal and social change. It discusses how critical thinking emerges form the theories of Mezirow and Brookfield and enables the individual to think differently about conflict. Critical thinking leads to conflict resolution, and the theoretical assumptions and alternatives are noted by the author as he shows different strategies for conflict resolution leading to suggestions for practical techniques to teach critical thinking and relate it to conflict resolution.
From the Paper "The individual and his or her work situation are affected by how they handle such issues as conflict resolution, stress management, interpersonal communication, and non-verbal communication. These dimensions of everyday life have to be addressed by everyone, and how well they manage to do this determines their own sense of well-being and self-esteem on the one hand, and how they are viewed by observers on the other. There is a considerable body of literature indicating how important these dimensions are to the person and to the person's social standing as well as offering advice and guidance on how best to achieve control of these dimensions. O. Randall Braman indicates the importance of the issue and calls on educators to fulfill their function of preparing the young for their adult roles in life by "teaching peace to adults" through the application of critical thinking to conflict situations."
Abstract Both Immanuel Kant and David Hume hold that community, rather than merely individual response, plays a major role in the judgment of taste. Both Kant and Hume also hold that any single individual's judgment of taste is not superior over another's. The paper explains that for there to be a meaningful definition of "judgment of taste," there must be some measure which transcends limited comparisons between individual judgment. For these two philosophers, the author finds, this measure is in part in the thing being presented and perceived and in part in the community of individuals doing the perceiving and responding. Nevertheless, the paper shows that the best their grand thinking achieves is that judgment of taste is achieved only through some sort of positive consensus won by an object over a long period of time and, preferably, over several cultures as well. It argues that the fact that the works they refer to are exclusively by white European males does not support the argument about the importance of cross-cultural judgment.
From the Paper "Still, even in such ideal circumstances, the individual will simply never be free of the "interest" which works to prejudice the individual's judgment on both the conscious and unconscious levels. If individual prejudice could be eliminated, of course, there would be no need for the philosophers to rely on the "community" aspect of the judgment of taste. The basis of this community aspect is a consensus, however Kant and Hume dress it up. If a work of art, for example, endures through generations and even centuries as an admired piece of work, as one which impresses the mind and stirs the emotions, then it can be said to have achieved a superior judgment of taste from the community."
Abstract This paper examines the characteristics of science and religion and their interactions to point out their compatibility. It looks at how the common source of conflict between science is that religion makes the assumption that the universe has been designed and created and is guided by supernatural forces or supernatural being; while science, on the other hand, assumed there are no immaterial or supernatural forces and all forces in the universe behave in an ultimately objective way. It assesses how although the worlds of religion and science are clearly separated from each other, there exists between the two a relationship and dependencies. The views of Albert Einstein, David Hume and some other philosophers are also discussed.
From the Paper "In the spring of 1633, Galileo Galilei was delivered before the dreaded Roman Inquisition to be tried on charges of heresy. He was denounced "for holding the false doctrine"that the sun is the center of the world and immovable, and that the earth moves.? Galileo was found guilty and forced to renounce his view. Ill and broken in spirit, he was sentenced to a life of perpetual imprisonment and penance. In the nineteenth century, Charles Darwin was mocked and maligned for claiming that all livings evolved from lower life forms. Those two classical conflicts along with many other conflicts between science and religion have arisen throughout the history of human."
