Abstract The writer of this paper raises pertinent questions regarding free will, freedom of choice and subsequent responsibility for actions. On the other end of the scale, the writer claims that everything in our lives has already been preordained by previous cause/effect relationships.
From the Paper "The most important and the oldest philosophical question is perhaps of free will and determinism. Do human beings have free will, or are our actions pre-determined? The term 'determinism' is mainly used by many philosophers for accounts of our human choices and actions that make them into effects of causal sequences. Sequences of such a kind as to raise a question about the freedom of the choices and actions. Determinism so understood has a limited subject matter, our lives and ourselves."
Abstract A discussion of individual knowledge gained by past experience, from actions and of knowledge in a business situation which depends on the environment, with the environment dependent on management.
From the Paper "The knowledge philosophy can be summarized by breaking it down into three areas. Firstly, individual knowledge comes from past experience. Knowledge is gained by an individual's experience. People are given certain facts that they may accept as truths, with a person able to either accept or reject the idea. Based on their past experience, including past knowledge they have accepted, they will either accept or reject new knowledge. Rejection would mean assuming either that the piece of information is not true or that it is not important. Acceptance would mean taking the information in and accepting it as part of what they know."
Abstract A paper which introduces and discusses Transcendentalism - a philosophical movement which centered on the divinity of the individual - in Henry David Thoreau's works, paying particular attention to "The Maine Woods," "Walden," and "A Plea for Captain John Brown." In particular, it discusses how Thoreau's works fit and do not fit the definition of Transcendentalism, and how he viewed the Brook Farm Experiment - a trial in putting together a Utopian society by a group of New Englanders.
From the Paper "In his later years, Thoreau became heavily involved with the Underground Railroad, and saving slaves who were running away from the South. His essay "A Plea for Captain John Brown" discusses his life, as well as his Transcendentalism, and his death because of his strong beliefs and work against slavery. This essay does not follow Thoreau's normal positive outlook on the world, as he has become unhappy with people of the time. He is no longer simply a sunny Transcendentalist, who longs for a simpler life, he is unhappy with his fellow man. "On the whole, my respect for my fellow-men, except as one may outweigh a million, is not being increased these days.""
This paper discusses Henry David Thoreau's essay "Resistance to Civil Government" and argues that his ideas represent extreme individualism and anarchist ideology.
Abstract This paper examines Thoreau's philosophy of resistance and civil disobedience as the roots of anarchy. The paper shows that within his work, the idea of individualism is paramount. Thoreau's views show that he was deeply skeptical of the government and rejects the view that a person must sacrifice or marginalize her values out of loyalty to her government.
From the Paper "The renowned American author and naturalist Henry David Thoreau is considered to be one of the most influential minds in the American thought and literature. Thoreau had not only great influence on American thought but also on the politics of the world, some of his ideas and concepts that he developed were the most original political doctrines devised by American thinker. We appreciate this more, considering the fact that he was an unconventional thinker. At the heart of Thoreau political philosophy was the concept of individualism, he was a supreme individualist and championed the human spirit against materialism and social conformity. His most famous book, "Walden" 1854 is an eloquent account of his experiment in near solitary living in close harmony with nature, it is also an expression of transcendentalist philosophy. One of Thoreau's most important work, the essay "Resistance to Civil Government" which was later published as "Civil Disobedience 1849, grew out of an overnight stay in prison as a result of his conscientious refusal to pay poll tax that supported the Mexican War which to Thoreau represented an effort to extend slavery. Thoreau's advocacy of civil disobedience as a means for the individual to protest those actions of his government that he considers unjust has had a wide-ranging impact."
Abstract Socrates' conception of justice as presented in this work is examined. The definition is then compared to a modern, democratic understanding of justice. A discussion of justice in terms of the individual versus the society as a whole is presented.
From the Paper "In Part Five of Plato's Republic, entitled "Justice in State and Individual" the philosopher Socrates states that ?I believe justice is the requirement we laid down at the beginning as of universal application when we founded our state, or else some particular form of it.? This statement is likely to set the modern reader up for a certain false assumption about the fundamental political structure of Plato's Republic. Because of the phrase that "justice for all" is the cornerstone of American notions of democratic governance, it is tempting to ascribe similar notions to Socrates, a man presumed to be one of the founders of liberal thought, as the philosopher was a citizen of ancient, democratic Athens. (204)"
Tags: Socrates, Athens, harmony, individual, society, democracy, polis
Abstract This paper presents an overview of Locke's theories as outlined in his essay. His arguments against a priori knowledge and the effects of his ideas on scientific thought are discussed. Cross-cultural, psychological, sociological, and developmental examples Locke gives to back up his theories are presented.
From the Paper "?I deny not that there are natural tendencies imprinted on the minds of men; and that from the very first instances of sense and perception, there are some things that are grateful and others unwelcome to them...but this makes nothing for innate characters on the mind,? (An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, I, ii, 3). With his Essay, John Locke effectively set the stage for the acceptance and practice of empiricism and the scientific method. Distancing himself from rationalists stemming back from Plato, the English philosopher argued against deductive reasoning pointing to a priori knowledge. Locke asserts throughout the Essay that the mind at birth is a blank slate and that none of our ideas are imprinted by either divine or natural sources. There are no prefabricated principles extant in the mind. Indeed, human beings can feel hunger, thirst, and pain, but our ideas about the world are based directly on sensory experiences. Hence, empiricism was born. Locke's arguments prove in many ways superior to those positions he refutes, for induction from the actual to the speculative supersedes deduction from the abstract to the real. The first book of the Essay comprises several chapters devoted to the refutation of the ?received doctrine that men have native ideas, and original characters, stamped upon their minds,? (II, i, 1). Following this undermining of established philosophical principles, Locke proceeds to describe how the mind does obtain its knowledge of the world in Book 2: ?all ideas come from sensation or reflection,? (II, i, 2). Sensory data precedes the formulation of ideas; our ideas do not and should not create our conception of reality."
Tags: empiricism, deductive, reasoning, tabula rasa, perception, experience, mind, consciousness, born
Abstract "The Abolition of Man" is a defense of Natural Law (Morality). C.S. Lewis argues that we need as a society to underpin reading and writing with lessons on morality and in the process both educate and re-educate ourselves. This paper analyzes his arguments and discusses whether people should live according to their inert feeling that allows them to distinguish between right or wrong or solely by morals.
From the Paper "In the first essay of The Abolition of Man, C. S. Lewis argues that young people should not have their feelings severed. They should be able to coexist with their emotions. He believes that children need to have a foundation of sensitivity so they know right from wrong. The heart harbors sensitivity and the head is charge of justness. The head should overrule what is in the heart if necessary, but the feeling should still exist. Men are created without chests. They are told that they should have motivation and drive. They should achieve in business. They should be powerful rulers, yet they have no hearts."
Tags: moral, foundation, tradition, emotions, tao, parents, children
Abstract This paper examines the writings of Aristotle and Plato on the subject of equality of all individuals versus the needs of society to be led by the best and brightest. A discussion is presented of the compromises made by contemporary American society, as a democracy, in order to acknowledge the importance of an elite.
From the Paper "We may begin our discussion with Aristotle's Nicomachean Nicomachean , which he wrote in 350 b.c. The treatise covers a range of topics, but focuses on the ways in which both a person's character and his or her intelligence are related to the chance that that person has in life to be both happy and virtuous. Aristotle's definition of "virtue" (like that of his contemporaries) was different from the ways in which we in general today define the term: It was more inclusive, perhaps being more akin to our idea of conscience or morality. In this treatise, Aristotle outlines two different kinds of virtue (which we might also translate simply as excellence): moral virtue and intellectual virtue. Moral virtue, for Aristotle, is an outgrowth of an individual's character and comes about through a lifetime of decisions and actions. In other words, for Aristotle, moral virtue is effected by the accumulation of a person's repeated and habitual choices: We make ourselves into virtuous (or unvirtuous) people by acting or failing to act in virtuous ways whenever we are presented with the chance to do so."
Abstract This paper thoroughly explains postmodernism and describes the philosophical concepts that lead up to this era. It defines that the "post" in postmodern is the rejecting of enlightenment. The paper describes the nine characteristics of the postmodern period. The author states that postmodernism is the philosophy of reality.
Table of Contents:
Introduction
Toward a Basic Definition of Postmodernism
Postmodernism's Predecessors
What is "Post" about Postmodernism?
Conclusion
From the Paper "In his book, Reality Isn't What It Used to Be, Walter Truett Anderson points out that our world has undergone a significant change. "In recent decades we have passed, like Alice slipping through the looking glass, into a new world," he says. This new world is the postmodern world. Anderson is not alone in his observation. Many have written books and articles in recent decades describing the phenomenon of postmodernism. What, though, is postmodernism and what are its characteristics? The purpose of this article is to examine postmodernism. In particular, it will attempt to identify the major characteristics of postmodernism and address the question, "What is 'post' about postmodernism?"
Abstract The paper examines several texts where the term justice is explored. The paper discusses how justice is perceived in Plato's "Republic" in an argument between Socrates and a man named Glaucon. It shows how Aristotle goes further in "The Nicomachean Ethics" to say that justice involves the elements of virtue. Other sources explored include the article "Is Tolerance Enough? The Catholic University and the common good" by David Hollenbach on the idea of justice and the Catholic Church, as well as a speech given by Reverend Bliss Brown in September, 2001 entitled "Stretching Your Views".
From the Paper "Justice is a commonly used term, but what does it actually mean? Justice is more than a belief, it is a way of life. Justice is a hard term to understand, and that is why these four different perspectives on the idea have been assembled. Each will be examined thoroughly in the pursuit to understand the true meaning of justice. Justice is more than an act it is how a person is composed. The idea of justice is comprised of many components, each of which is an integral part of the final concept. Justice is best practiced in an environment where it could be understood and followed."
Abstract This paper, in dealing with existentialist thought that appears throughout the novel, highlights the theories of several different existentialist philosophers. It shows how Camus incorporates their ideas about death and the purpose of one's life throughout his book.
From the Paper "Existentialism is a philosophy developed and adopted by many writers over the 19th and 20th centuries. It was not until the middle of World War II that the existentialist movement began to spread, as more and more individuals began to examine the areas of death and suffering. Elements of existentialism could be found in almost all writings during this time period. Existentialism is thought to have been created from the writings of Soren Kierkegaard, Fyodor Dostoyevoski, and Friedrich Nietzche. However, the most prominent of the existentialist writers were said to be the French novelists: Sartre, Simone de Beauvoir, and Albert Camus. The term "existentialism" covers a group of ideals that emphasizes the lack of meaning for life, the absurdity of the human actions, and the incoherence of everyday life in relation to anything ("New Nation" 1). These similar themes can be found interwoven in many novels of existentialist writers ("Connect" 1). The Stranger, a novel written by Albert Camus, through the character of Mersault, illustrates the theories and beliefs of existentialism."
Abstract This paper presents a detailed examination of politics and justice in Greek and Roman literature and its reflection in western civilization. It discusses the works of Plato, Aristotle and Socrates. The paper explores the common issues of ancient and modern society: human rights, political systems and equality.
From the Paper "Since the beginning of time mankind has continued to evolve and change to suit its needs. The laws, mores and norms that mankind has put in place often have to do with history and lessons learned in the past. Some of the ways the western world functions come from modern need but often times the functions, expectations and standards stem from periods long ago. The ancient Greeks and ancient Romans created societies that many believe were extremely advanced for their time. Many of things that those societies and cultures followed are still used in modern western civilization today."
Tags: plato, aristotle, socrates, human, rights, political, systems, equality, society
Abstract A comparison of beliefs and ideologies. By looking at the teachings of Jesus, Muhammad, Confucius and Buddha, similarities and differences are identified with regards to issues including salvation, humanism, God, morality, social responsibility, goodness and sin. The author examines common ground in their philosophies as well as their differing religious ideas.
From the Paper "For the Buddha, Salvation arises through a kind of spiritual "awakening"; the progressively enlightened individual eventually reaches a pinnacle of conscious awareness, otherwise known as Enlightenment or Nirvana. Prince Gautama Siddhartha, through years of meditation, and through an ascetic life based on the renunciation of worldly temptations, finally attained the status of Buddha ("Awakened One"), and thereby assumed the role of Divine Savior. On this point, the philosophy of the Buddha comes in sharp contrast to the beliefs of Muhammad and Jesus, though each Prophet holds to the idea that our actions in this life impact upon our Salvation. For the Buddha, God does not enter into the spiritual equation. Humans discover or arrive at their own Buddhahood, and as newly awakened individuals, they are then able to escape endless suffering on the "Wheel of Samsara" (the wheel of endless reincarnations through birth, death, and re-birth), which is driven by Karma (one's lack of responsibility for their desires, negative actions, and earthly attachments)."
This paper explores the first and second formulations of Emmanuel Kant's "Categorical Imperative" and cites evidence that the two can indeed work together, contrary to prominent interpretation.
1,900 words (approx. 7.6 pages), 0 sources, 2001, $ 60.95
Abstract This paper is centrally interested in the definition of "objectivity" in the work of E. Kant, particularly in relation to his first first and second formulations of the categorical imperative. This paper explores the conventional interpretation of the notion of objectivity, and then offers a modernized understanding of the term.
From the Paper "This essay holds that the application of the first and second formulations of Kant's moral doctrine the categorical imperative"the purpose of which is to determine the morality of human action"can and must be applied in conjunction. When applied in conjunction, it is shown that the two formulations prohibit and enjoin the same actions for the same reason. First, this essay explores the conventional interpretation of the first and second formulations of the categorical imperative. After mentioning the primary fault of this interpretation?namely, the confusion surrounding the interpretation of the terms "objective" or "objectivity"? a new interpretation is suggested."
Abstract The paper analyzes "A Praise of Folly", written in 1509, which expresses the views of Desiderius Erasmus toward such topics as the church, humanism and the clergy. The paper shows how Erasmus is of the opinion that popes, cardinals, priests, and monks gave in to their human temptations and did not live up to the example set by Christ.
From the Paper "He expressed his views through The Praise of Folly, a book that is about a muse named Folly, who acts as the vehicle through which Erasmus criticizes the church. Erasmus wrote the book to express humanist views and to criticize much of society. The book uses examples of the clergy's misdeeds to show how they cannot control their human weaknesses and demonstrated how they are not living up to Christ's example."
