This is a personal essay examining and analyzing arguments about both the good and bad of today's morality, a value-system that is generally without God's influence.
Abstract This is an essay which discusses God and morality. It looks at how God is viewed by different people. The author disagrees that a lack in faith in God has contributed to the country's current moral fibre, and argues that while moral standards and looser values are in existance today, but they are a result of the influence of the mass media and dissolution of the nuclear family, and not because of absence of a God-based society.
From the Paper "The negative effects of the loss of God are just as crucial to understand in discussing God and morality. These have often been overlooked by those who welcome all things new and better at whatever cost. The fact that society has lost the perception of harmony and unity created by divine guidance means that it can be argued that there are no universal morals left in the world. The acceptability of certain acts that were considered immoral before bothers many of us, and the term "liberalization" is often used in society when we really mean that we are without common norms of behavior or values."
Abstract This paper looks at the effect that the printing press had in the spread of art and culture through the eyes of Walter Benjamin in Samuel Weber's essay, "Art, Aura and the Work of Walter Benjamin." Whereas Benjamin felt that mass reproduction was bad for the art world, he argues that the invention of the printing press allowed books to be read all over the world thereby changing the uniqueness of each painting. This paper also takes a look at the Mona Lisa, and explains that the ability to reproduce it is a positive thing, that, even though it's "aura," is no longer unique, many more people are now able to experience art.
From the Paper "With the invention of the printing press, however, books could be manufactured quickly and cheaply, and were available to great number of people. Two people living hundreds of miles apart could read the same book and find the same words, the same illustrations on the same page. However, the printing press also took something away from books - the originality and artistry that the monks had poured into each unique volume. Walter Benjamin would say that the aura of the monks' volumes was withering away, while the aura of the mass reproduced books was flourishing."
Abstract This paper looks at the way in which Emerson, Thoreau and Melville confront and reject the Christianity of their time--though they do not reject God. All three authors address what they see as a fundamental error of human perception: that doing is the same as being. This essay shows the way in which these authors draw on Christianity's powerful images, but reject its salvation.
From the Paper "Romantics at heart, these writers may be strong in their condemnation of society's and Christianity's errors, but as Thomas Wolfe so aptly put it of every romantic: "His tongue was bitter because his heart believed so much."
"Dream delivers us to dream, and there is no end to illusion" writes Ralph Waldo Emerson in his great essay, Experience. There is something essential, indestructible in the human soul that must be sought out but it is supremely difficult to do so."
This paper explores Plato's theory of knowledge in the Philebus, specifically, the division of knowledge into four kinds in order to solve the metaphysical problem of the One and the Many.
Abstract This paper explores Plato's Philebus as it deals with the metaphysical problem of the one and the many. By dividing knowledge into four kinds: that which has limit, the unlimited, mixed (limited and unlimited), and the cause. Plato is able explain how the forms (especially the good) can be completely one, while the objects in the physical world are many. The four kinds are explained in detail, with many examples. Some comparisons are drawn to Aristotle's theory of knowledge, as well. Brief comments are made on Plato's theory of knowledge and its relation to his belief that the life of philosophy, i.e., wisdom, is the true life.
From the Paper "In the Philebus, Plato tackles one of the greatest metaphysical problems in his view of the universe. The world of the forms, of which the good is the guiding and ordering principle, must be absolutely one. If the forms correspond to reality, they must partake of one unity indivisible, eternal, unique, unchanging, at rest, always the same, and existing essentially. However, man exists in time, so he must be subject to change. He exists as an individual in a world of infinite particulars. The plurality of the material world, in contrast to the unity of the forms, is associated with becoming, time, process, change, motion, differentiation, and relativity. For Plato, the conflict is how to assess the relationship between the universal and the particular. Unlike in Aristotle's view, Plato does not accept that an understanding of the universal can be grasped through a simple analysis of the particulars. Knowledge begins in sense perception, but does not end there. Plato's answer is a division of the universal "one" into kinds. The particulars are unlimited, so he must demonstrate that the forms are one (so that they can exist), yet not so one that they do not allow the particulars to be divided into kinds. The one must be a whole, but a whole whose wholeness is greater than the sum of its parts. To "divide" the one into the proper parts, one cannot move too quickly from the universal to the particulars."
Abstract This paper looks at two Greek philosophers, Heraclitus, and Parmenides. It examines their different theories as to how the universe was created, understanding of the universe, 'way of truth,' 'way of opinion' and the third way. The author explains that Parmenides, who came after Heraclitus, addressed part of his writings as a refutation of Heraclitus? views. He objected both to Heraclitus? view of the universe and how Heraclitus felt people could gain knowledge of it.
From the Paper "While we have discussed what both men see as the make up of the material world, it is equally important to take up how each man felt he could know what he knows about the universe. Mimicking a bit the structure of Parmenides? own writings, this section covers the ?way of truth,? ?the way of opinion,? and then directly addresses Parmenides critique of Heraclitus. Heraclitus used "logos" in multiple ways. The first, discussed above, is as the ordering principle of the universe. However, the most common use of "logos" at the time of Heraclitus? writing was ?Word.? Heraclitus felt strongly that our ability to use and understand language is the same ability that allows us to understand and describe the world. So "logos" is both the actual order of the universe as well as the means of our ability to understand it."
Abstract This paper examines the views and philosophies of Socrates about science, ethics and the natural world. The author examines the writings of Plato as a reference and discusses some of his opinions and criticisms.
From the Paper ?One of the great ironies of the inheritance that we in the contemporary West owe to classical thinkers is the fact that we know nothing at all directly from Socrates own hand, for this great Greek philosopher left us no writings. We know about him only through the words of others - Plato, Aristotle and Xenophon primarily. Thus we must learn of Socrates's opinions by looking over the shoulders of others, trying to filter out their own biases to discern what Socrates himself believed and taught. Of all of those who have helped to preserve Socrates's ideas, Plato may have been the most accurate, the most committed to preserving in tact the opinions of his teacher.?
Abstract This paper is an in-depth examination of how to deal with the issue of hate speech. The author looks at the Constitution, specifically at the contradictions between the 14th Amendment and the concept of freedom of speech. The author looks at some of the commentary written by Jon Locke, or Jon Stuart Mill, and even Aristotle, on the problem of freedom of speech. The author presents historical and modern-day examples of some of the conflicts that have occurred in trying to determine the parameters of freedom of speech, and hate speech in our society.
From the Paper "John Locke would probably have weighed in on the importance of limiting the speech before it gets to the point where person feels that he or she is endangered. His empirical system of philosophy emphasized the importance of the experience of the senses in pursuit of knowledge rather than intuitive speculation or deduction. Having come into this world with our minds entirely free of innate conceptions, Locke argued that all human thought is based upon experience. And it is the experiences of minorities within American culture that makes them fear the consequences of hate speech; they have learned through their experiences in the world that bigoted speech easily and often turns into bigoted action (Dunn 48). Another essential part of Locke's philosophy was that all persons are born equal, which would no doubt incline him to value the equal protection of each person under the rule of law (Dunn 121)."
This paper discusses the philosopher George Berkeley's concept of immaterialism, his subsequent argument for the existence of God, and the reasons why his argument cannot be accepted as being valid.
Abstract An intricate discussion of philosopher George Berkeley's concept of immaterialism and his subsequent argument for the necessary existence of a Supreme Being, or God. The author outlines and analyzes Berkeley's two major philosophical treatises, and the main arguments found in each are clearly defined and presented in a succinct, yet detailed manner. Philosophical ideas/concepts discussed include the "Likeness Principle" and the variability of sensory experience. The paper then presents Berkeley's argument for the existence of God, which builds upon the already established theory of immaterialism by discussing the distinction between absolute and relative existence.
From the Paper "Immaterialism, as defined by Berkeley, is the idea that it is impossible for any sensible qualities whatsoever to exist independent of a mind (Berkeley 1965, 5-6). This argument is brought forth succinctly and clearly in the Dialogues, in which Berkeley presents his case through the character of Philonous, and defends it against criticism by the character of Hylas. Although there are many aspects in both Principles and the Dialogues that contribute to the overall argument for immaterialism, for the purpose of this essay, only two of the strongest points will be discussed- the argument from variability and the likeness principle.
One of the key features of Berkeley's argument for immaterialism centers on the variability of one's sensory experiences in comparison to another?s. He notes that each individual perceives the world differently, whether in terms of smell, taste, sight, or touch. One of the ways in which this variability of sensory experiences is presented by Philonous to Hylas is during a discussion between the two concerning taste. Philonous points out that although a certain food may taste pleasant to one person, that same food may taste awful to another. "How could this be", Philonous asks Hylas, "if taste was something really inherent in the food"? (Berkeley 1998, [180]) There is only apparent taste, and this requires dependence on a mind. The same argument is also applied to smell, touch, sight, extension, motion, and solidity, and is reasoned to be just as effective. Perceptual variability occurs with these senses/qualities as well, and none of the apparent smells or colors seem to be any more real than any other ([68-78])."
The following paper discusses whether the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001 could have been avoided if the United States had followed the principles of Sun Tzu in "The Art of War".
Abstract This paper illustrates how the United States has followed and could follow Sun Tzu's principles in "The Art of War" in the days prior to September 11, 2001 and during Operation Enduring Freedom.
From the Paper "Every military leader is, or should be, familiar with Sun Tzu's Art of War. It is the preeminent primer on military tactics, strategies, and principles, and the oldest military treatise in the world. One can apply the principles of the Art of War to Operation Enduring Freedom. This paper will examine how the United States' responses to terrorism since September 11 and through the present day have or have not held to Sun Tzu's principles."
Abstract The following paper explores the question of ethics according to the author's own set of religious principles and beliefs. The author's own version of moral behavior has been influenced by many experiences, family and the method in which he was raised, as well as the American and international societies in which he has lived. The author's opinions tend to be metropolitan, forward looking, and based on thought as opposed to tradition or the beliefs of others. Opposing the ambiguity of the definition of "moral", the word "ethics" is more precisely defined.
From the Paper "The question of whether one can be a moral person while simultaneously practicing law as an ethical attorney is a circular argument that has no clear answer. The situation is a philosophical one that can easily be compared to the age-old quandary, "Which came first, the chicken or the egg?" Each side can be argued equally well as long as no restrictions are placed upon the circumstances. However, in order to provide more clarity to the issue, it is critical to impose specific requirements and boundaries to the issue."
An in-depth look at the unanswered questions of famous philosophers such as Hobbes, Russel, Kant and Nietzsche, dealing with questions on thought, religion, science and more.
Abstract This paper attempts to understand the fundamental questions between science, religion, thought, and human balance, as well as illustrate the thoughts of these philosophers and how they never truly came at consistent answers to these questions. The writer discusses the philosophies of Hobbes, Russell, Kant and Nietzsche and focuses on philosophy and the relationship between the message it communicates and the questions it evokes. The writer also attempts to understand just whom philosophy intends to satisfy and includes a discussion on understanding technology.
From the Paper "Western culture has always grappled with the meaning of life, whether there is or isn?t a God, is he male or female, does science take precedence over this God, etc. Philosophers, in answering these questions, have made assumptions about the nature of reality. ?These assumptions tend to be expressed in oppositional language, such as mind and body, divinity and nature, orthodoxy and heterodoxy, science and religion.? In later philosophy, thinkers developed a larger capacity for thought and started to grapple with the concept of reason. This occurred at the time of Socrates and the formation of Platonic philosophy, and again in the 1470s and 80s during the Renaissance, when scholars were prone to finding magic and mysticism in the arts and the doctrines of religion. (Kaufman, 1987)"
Abstract A look at Heidegger's main teachings focusing on the essential aspects of his essentialism. The paper then explores his criticisms of Jean-Paul Sartre's far more famous version of existentialism as well as examines the ways in which ? despite Heidegger's criticism of Sartre ? the two are in many ways the same.
From the Paper "Heidegger, like all modern philosophers (and possibly the ancient ones as well), incorporated the work of a number of earlier thinkers into his own formulation of existentialism and his understanding of the nature of reality of the place of humans in the world. As an existentialist, Heidegger believed in a philosophy that was relatively concrete, that is concerned with addressing the place of people in the world, dealing with concrete, real problems. This is a cornerstone of existentialism, this insistence upon the reality of existence in a real world, and an existence moreover that is marked by no Cartesian dualism. Heidegger (along with Sartre and other existentialists) would soundly reject the kinds of ideas about consciousness that were promulgated by Descartes, a form of human consciousness that hovers somewhere outside of consciousness and that is used to intuit or to infer the existence of other things in the world."
Abstract To better understand these two Founding Fathers and their attitudes towards Christianity, this paper compares and contrasts the sentiments of Thomas Paine ? author, pamphleteer, and political maverick ? and Benjamin Franklin ? scientist, author, politician, statesman, and diplomat. It examines their backgrounds, their familial upbringings, their personal experiences as young men: essentially, how their life experiences shaped and molded their thinking on Christianity. In many aspects, both Paine and Franklin share common grounds on religion, though there's sufficient diversification that they both publicly espoused and noted in print.
From the Paper "It's a surprise that America is not a Christian nation. The entire history of Mankind is replete with rising civilizations having a religion closely associated within the structure and framework of a nation's government and society, such as the Church of England in Britain. America's Founding Fathers had the foresight not to designate any one sect as the official religion of a nation. At no point does Christianity enter the context of governmental recognition or incorporation in the Articles of Confederation or the Constitution of the United States of America; yet, many ? if not all ? of the Founding Fathers were raised in one Christian sect or another. When the Puritans first fled England, they were seeking a place to live without religious persecution from the authorities. Their journey first took them to the Low Countries of Europe and eventually to the New World of America. These Puritans were looking for a new home where they can live their lives, raised their families, become prosperous, explore new lands, and worship freely. As England expanded its colonies in America, religious institutions and houses of worship became the cornerstone of any community from Maine through Georgia, but, still, Christianity never became America's national religion."
Abstract This paper is an in-depth examination of people's belief or non-belief in God. The author attempts to show some of the areas of conflict between believers and non-believers, including does God exist, do we have to believe in God to live a full life, and exactly how important is God in our every day life. The author looks at how different religions, authors, philosophers and theorists have attempted to answer these questions since the beginning of time.
From the Paper "The Intelligent Designer theory has gotten more sophisticated. Some of its proponents are Dr. Michael Behe- who proposed ordered creationism at the molecular level, and Philip E. Johnson, the self-styled leader of the Intelligence Designer movement. These theorists aver that the complexities of living beings, the mechanisms within even a single living cell, the balance of everything in nature, are unfathomable when looked at from a perspectives of evolutionists?the number of random permutations that had to occur before it all fell into place. In other words, the natural order of things we see around and within us had to have been pre-designed. The Intelligent Designer theory from a standpoint of astronomy is known as the ?anthropic principle.? Astronomer Sir Edward Hoyle and Mathematician Chandra Singh, both avowed atheists, calculated the odds that the world as we see it occurring by chance are 1 in 1040,000"truly, a number unfathomable even by astronomical standards. South African Astronomer David Block has observed that the Universe is expanding at the right rate and balance that sustains life on planet. There is an inbuilt design factor that cares for the universe"God the Intelligent Designer."
Abstract Socrates' views are analyzed by studying a conversation between Socrates, Cephalus, his son Polemarchus and his followers. The author explains how Socrates enters into a philosophical dialogue with several different individuals who attempt to set down a firm definition of justice. Socrates then sets out to test and challenge their definitions"through his method of questioning and counter-examples"in an attempt to arrive at a more secure definition of justice, that which cannot be refuted.
From the Paper "Cephalus first raises the idea of justice with Socrates and then passes the debate on to his son, Polemarchus, to carry forward. In line with his father's arguments, Polemarchus develops the most basic definition of justice suggested in the Republic. He makes the claim that justice means simply to speak the truth and to give people their proper due; for example, old debts should be repaid. Justice also means treating people in accordance with their essential character. For example, Polemarchus concludes that if a certain individual is considered an enemy, that individual should meet with "something harmful" (26); if another individual is considered a friend, that individual should be treated well."
