Abstract This paper applies the philosophy of utilitarianism to argue if favor of embryonic stem cell research. The paper discusses the ethical dilemma involved in destroying embryos and argues that the utility of stem cell research, its potential to reduce human suffering, make it ethical as well as necessary.
From the Paper "Embryonic stem cell research has the potential to open the floodgates of science, finding cures for a myriad of different cancers and diseases, saving millions of lives and averting untold human suffering in the process. Despite the nearly boundless promise that stem cells offer, there is a potent ethical dilemma involved. Namely, research into stem cells requires the destruction of human embryos. While there are indeed some powerful visceral arguments to be made concerning the sanctity of human life, I believe that there is an equally powerful ethically grounded argument..."
Abstract This essay discusses John Stuart Mill's liberal views on individual freedom. The writer then compares these views to the views of Karl Marx on freedom and social class offered in the "Communist Manifesto." The writer concludes by addressing whether or not Marx' analysis is a valid counter to Mill's more liberal view of the concept.
From the Paper "Both John Stuart Mill and Karl Marx were philosophers with a strong emphasis on individual freedom. Mill viewed freedom under a legitimate government concerned with the greatest good as necessary and possible. Mill argued in 'On Liberty' that individual freedom is and must be viewed as a sacrosanct quality and that there are few if any circumstances under which a state may rightfully interfere with individual freedom. Karl Marx also theorized about society's evolution toward true freedom believing society evolved toward freedom ... "
Abstract This paper explores how the incorporation of 'individualism' into the concept of citizenship transformed citizenship into a catalyst or engine for liberation. The author points out that citizenship w is understood to be membership in a larger national community. The paper argues that, according to Hobbesian philosophy, citizenship protects personal freedoms and safeguards individual liberty where none might be possible otherwise.
From the Paper "The idea of the sovereign individual has long been viewed as subversive to the traditional political order. This is especially true when one pauses to consider the impact of sovereign individuals who embrace the political life rather than the more quiescent contemplative or religious life. Be that as it may, individualism was successfully incorporated into the concept of citizenship and this incorporation transformed citizenship into a vehicle for liberation - without irreparably harming the legitimacy or viability of nation states or governmental apparatuses. In assessing the above-mentioned phenomenon, the following paper will suggest that citizenship - which obviously implies membership within a national community - became an engine of liberation because citizenship - historically and today - provides those who have it with individual rights and freedoms unavailable to do those who do not have it."
Abstract This paper critically reviews contemporary Australian utilitarian philosopher Peter Singer's piece, a chapter from Practical Ethics entitled "Quality for Animals," outlining his main arguments and offering criticism of them.
From the Paper "In his controversial utilitarian work, Practical Ethics, modern Australian philosopher, Peter Singer, includes a chapter entitled "Equality for Animals. Singer has throughout the book so far argued for a sort of utilitarianism, based on the original theories of founders of this ethical philosophy such as Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill, a utilitarianism that hopes for ethical, equal, and fair treatment of all humankind, all people, however diverse, who might walk our planet and interact in our society. Yet, in this chapter, Singer extends his hopes for equality and ethical treatment beyond the human realm; he argues that all members of the animal kingdom, not just our species Homo sapiens, deserve to be treated equally. Likening what he has dubbed speciesism to the dread occurrence of racism, Singer makes an overall simple argument against this speciesism which humans seem to have, augmenting with many and complex sub-arguments."
Abstract This essay discusses philosopher Immanuel Kant's approach to the Enlightenment as presented in his work, "What is Enlightenment". The author of the paper addresses the following questions: Why did Kant choose to address the Enlightenment as he did? Is his approach as narrow as it seems to be? What exactly was the Enlightenment? Was it arborescent or rhizomatic? Depending on how it is defined, what approach should be taken to this phenomenon?
From the Paper "The Enlightenment is an enigma in that it represents an abrupt transition from the thought of the preceding period with a subsequent transformation of all social and cultural institutions. Yet, Kant treats the Enlightenment by using an apparently very narrow focus which leads to numerous problems. "
Abstract This paper discusses Plato's and Aristotle's views on the human soul. The paper makes the basic argument that both philosophers had different positions on the mind-soul relationship, the characteristics of the soul and the origin of the soul. The only thing they agree on is that souls come from other souls.
From the Paper "The human soul has been a common topic of debate for philosophers ever since philosophers have existed. Both Plato and Aristotle theorized about the human soul. In most cases they presented very different arguments on the nature of the human soul. However, there are also a few similarities between their arguments. This essay will look at the arguments that both Plato and Aristotle made about the human soul. The three areas in which these philosophers differ are in terms of the relationship between the body and the soul, the nature of the soul and the ultimate origin of the soul."
Abstract The paper explains how Plato's conception of the human soul leads into his political philosophy. The paper continues that his notion of the soul leads him to believe that democratic systems of government must inevitably degenerate into tyrannical systems. The paper is of the opinion that ultimately Plato's point about democracy is fairly strong, but he fails to properly explain how his system of government could be more socially stable.
From the Paper "For Plato, the soul is a grounded aspect of human nature; it is innate and based upon an adequate understanding of human actions. The paper discusses how Plato, from observing human tendencies, arrives at the conclusion that there must be three separate portions of the soul. This notion is based upon the fact that people are often drawn towards certain actions while they are simultaneously pulled away from them; an alcoholic may desire a drink, but at the same time may want to resist such behavior. This sort of conflict, residing in a single individual, could be interpreted or explained in a number of ways; Plato, however, rests his explanation upon a principle that he believes to be the truth. Socrates states, "It is obvious that the same thing will not be willing to do or undergo opposites in the same part of itself, in relation to the same thing, at the same time.""
Abstract Religion plays a key role in the works of both Emile Durkheim and Karl Marx and a close look at their respective views on religion are therefore very important. With that in mind, this paper argues that, while both Durkheim and Marx are not strong advocates of religion, Marx is especially sharp in his denunciation. In particular, whereas Durkheim does see some salutary effects associated with religious practice - such as the promotion of social solidarity as well as a collective moral code - Marx views religion as being basically an appendage of the capitalist establishment. More than that, Marx's vision of both religion and of capitalism is so unflattering that he compares the former to an ancient Near Eastern religious sect which favored the sacrifice of children to an obscure deity.
Abstract The paper discusses how Karl Marx believed that there were two classes of people; the working class and the wealthy. His social philosophy suggested that the wealthy class was consistently attempting to ensure that the working class could never alter their social position. Furthermore, Marx contended that the wealthy controlled the working class because of the working class dependence on the wealthy for their livelihood. In modern society, however, the growing opinion is that there are three social classes; the poor, the middle class and the wealthy.
Abstract This paper analyzes, in depth, Friedrich Nietzsche's arguments in his essay "On Truth and Lying in a Non-Moral Sense". The paper focuses on the concepts that Nietzsche describes in his essay, of the creation of the metaphor, the importance of the lie and then discusses the effects that this process has on society.
From the Paper "Truths shape our world. They are the ideas that impose a unified meaning on the chaos and indeterminacy of our lives. People devote themselves to these truths: wars are fought, Earth is subjugated, and culture is created. These rallying cries of civilization: justice, honor, virtue, stewardship, salvation, are the ghosts of our history who have tricked us into believing they are real and deserving of our attention. Nietzsche rages against this hoax in On Truth and Lying in a Non-Moral Sense."
Abstract This paper discusses the parallel between Andy and Larry Wachowski's movie "The Matrix," in which there are two very different, yet very real worlds, and Book VII from Plato's "The Republic." The paper points out that through the allegory of the cave, Plato explained his theory of reality, proving that what mankind perceived were shadows, products of ideal figures that existed beyond everything. According to Plato, any knowledge gained from the world of senses was flawed and imperfect , while real knowledge was only accomplished via the world of ideas, by means of reason. Plato's allegory emphasizes the two distinct worlds, both outside and inside the cave. The paper asserts that the common thread between "The Matrix" and this cave allegory is that both examine the duality of knowledge and ignorance, of reality and perception. The paper claims that in the matrix allegory, our lives are like computerized programs, in which all that we have, think and possess does not exist. The paper concludes that true reality remains outside and, with the help of a good master, someday we might reach it.
From the Paper "According to Plato's perspective, in the beginning of life, the human soul lacks knowledge. When man is inside the cave, he is ignorant of passion, fear and prejudice. In the first phase, the shadows of the cave are the vague ideas that we have of ourselves. Neo, the principal character of "The Matrix," takes a pill that transports him inside the Matrix where he discovers the fictitious world in which he was living. Neo learns that the memories of his life were merely the vague ideas that he had of himself, and he questions what is real and unreal at one moment in time. For example, right before entering a restaurant that claimed it had the best pasta dishes, Neo ate a white pasta in the spacecraft that could have been any type of food. In this manner, the ideas that Neo had about this false fictitious world, the Matrix, echo that of the prisoners in the cave of The Republic. This place in which common people live--where human beings exist until they acquire knowledge--is difficult to comprehend. Even Neo could not fully grasp the nature of his false universe until Morfeo helped him to understand everything that was going on around him."
From the Paper "Camus? The Plague interestingly examines the human reaction to suffering and crisis. Camus explores the way in which human behavior changes when the clouds darken, creating a long-term state of crisis. We find that, though people may become indifferent to the suffering of others and that differences may become polarized, to overcome the crisis the community must work together. Consequently, the shared value of community must be embraced, while those who seek mere individual gain, as Cottard did, must be shunned. "
A look at how Kai Nelson and J.P. Moreland answer the question: If there is a higher being, how much control does he/it have over ordinary lives, and how does this affect human choices of morality?
2,419 words (approx. 9.7 pages), 0 sources, 1999, $ 73.95
Abstract A discussion of the existence of God based on arguments on morality and ethics as argued by Kai Nielson and J.P. Moreland. Also a discussion of freedom and free will and the phenomenon of determinism.
A look how, despite the very different fates of the two main characters, Sophocles? drama "Antigone" demonstrates that for both men and women it is difficult and dangerous to step out of their proper roles.
1,835 words (approx. 7.3 pages), 2 sources, 2000, $ 58.95
From the Paper "Superficially, the characters of Creon and Antigone appear to have little in common in Sophocles tragic drama. Antigone is the tragic heroine who meets her death, whereas Creon, the King, is arguably a tragic hero who is left with the devastating loss of his family. They are both similar in that they defy the laws. Antigone defies the man-made laws of her land and she stands up to the male authority figures of her country. Creon, however, defied the natural laws of the Gods and realizes that in doing so he is a "vain silly man" (1556). Both act out of their own sense of what is correct and both consult their own consciences. Both characters are willing to risk everything for their beliefs. Despite the very different fates of the two characters, Sophocles? drama demonstrates that for both men and women it is difficult and dangerous to step out of their proper roles."
An argument that the liberty to deviate from societal norms, the requisite for producing individuals, certainly yields maximal utility, for the most well-developed person has become the best human that he can possibly be, contra Mill.
2,133 words (approx. 8.5 pages), 2 sources, 2000, $ 66.95
From the Paper ". Intervention against personal liberty cannot promote utility. Even if it were granted that a proper intervention against individual liberty would maximize an individual's productive capacity, then men merely might gain more food, better houses, and an increase in total wealth. However, such men would not use any of their human faculties that separate them from animals; these mechanized unthinking imitators would have as much inherent human worth as an automaton. In contrast, the man who exercises his liberty to choose his own plan of life, even if less productive than that which could be centrally directed, uses all of his faculties: observation, reasoning, judgment, firmness, and self-control. Because ?it really is of importance, not only what men do, but also what manner of men they are that do it,? increasing our available material goods undermines utility if it requires the wholesale conversion of men into automatons or apes (962). Indeed, the liberty to deviate from societal norms, the requisite for individuality which produces well-developed human beings, as opposed to ape-like automatons, certainly yields maximal utility, for the most well-developed person has become the best human that he can possibly be. "
