Abstract This paper explains Descartes's philosophy of the human mind and how his philosophy, which contends that the real self is based not in the nature of the material body but rather in the essence of thought, differs from empiricism, which contends that the mind is informed by experience in a learning process that is based on sensation and cognition. The paper concludes with the author offering his personal perspective of Descartes's rationalism and whether it is applicable to his life and experiences.
From the Paper "Empiricism focuses on the perceived fact that synthetic theories are only possible through experience and are therefore also subject to doubt, since experiences can be illusory or deceptive. This essential doubt is also something that is recognized by rationalists like Descartes, who then categorized the doubt as the mutability and fallibility of the senses. In terms of the absolutism of mind/body distinctions, empiricists are more hesitant to ascribe the realm of theory or logic to the formation of any truth that could be seen to be absolute and unquestioned such as reason or the power of deduction. Some criticize rationalism for assuming that only self-directed introspection can truly decipher reality in any productive or reasonable way. Descartes? rationalism led to further theories by Kant and others. Most social theories are given some context epistemologically, even those that seek to synthesize and combine different aspects of rationalism and empiricism. The two theories are often seen to be philosophical absolutes in and of themselves in their respective relations to the human mind as a separate and holistic entity in its relationship to the body."
Abstract This paper begins with a look at how Utilitarianism has affected our present-day economic and social paradigm and then, while briefly acknowledging its positive aspects, takes a deeper look at the criticisms of the Utilitarian philosophy. Next, the paper presents a brief outline of the philosophy, as developed by John Stuart Mill, and explains the attraction of Utilitarianism during Mill's day. The paper continues with a look at additional criticisms of Utilitarianism and a discussion of the author's point of view on Utilitarianism and why these criticisms may be wrong.
From the Paper "Utilitarianism has had a profound impact on many areas of society, including politics and education, since its inception in the nineteenth century. In terms of institutional application in a historical sense, "The main tenets of utilitarianism included the exposure of all institutions to the tests of rational utility, in the interest of the greatest
happiness of the greatest number" and the possibility of an objective ethics? (Williams, p. 88). Some others have likened utilitarianism to an oversimplification of the universe that does not take into account its essential idiosyncrasies and variant circumstances, and sees people, perhaps rather narrowly, less as individuals and more as examples of
national or economic statistics. Either way, utilitarianism has often been evinced by an over-reliance on statistics, and these statistics could easily be correlated with the over-reliance on facts that have formed the basis for the rote educational system, which still persists in many areas."
Abstract This paper discusses the logical analysts, Richard Heuer of the CIA and Edward de Bono. The paper outlines the similarities and differences in the beliefs of these two men. The paper contends that Heuer and de Bono are strikingly similar in their assessment of the human mind as naturally lacking in the skills necessary to analyze a complex issue.
From the Paper "Many argue that an individual's ability to ?think outside the box,? or to use his or her ability to see an issue from an unorthodox perspective can provide great power and insight into that issue that few "typical thinkers" can harness. This is definitely the case for professional "thinkers" Richard Heuer of the CIA and Edward de Bono. Although both logical analysts demonstrate some differences in their approaches concerning the "science" of thinking (with regard to the process by which one reaches judgments or conclusions), they hold striking and profound similarities."
Abstract This paper describes how John Dewey's life and work in philosophy contributed to the field of education. The paper begins with a look at Dewey's early years and college-age years and what influenced him during these years and then goes on to discuss Dewey's views on social philosophy, psychology, logic, and ethics. The paper concludes with a discussion of his philosophy of education.
From the Paper "John Dewey was born on October 20, 1859, the third of four sons born to Archibald Sprague Dewey and Lucina Artemesia Rich of Burlington, Vermont (Field, 2001). Dewey's childhood years in Vermont played a role in shaping his later thought and theories. For, the Vermonters of those days were educated as much by industrial and agricultural activities, as they were by the local school. This led Dewey to realize that the most important parts of his education, until he entered college, were obtained outside the school-room. Dewey then used this realization to focus, both in theory and practice, on occupational activities as the most effective approach to genuine learning and personal intellectual discipline (Dewey, Harris, & Mccluskey, 1958, p. 178)."
Abstract This essay brings out the positive and negative points in the three major systems of morality: teleology, deontology, and the Aristotle's virtue-based systems of morality. It then explains why Mill's theory of Utilitarianism (teleology) would be better in today's society.
From the Paper "The majority of the population, probably including yourself, claims they act "morally". Many of these people ask other people to act "morally", but when you ask these "moral" people what morality is they stand there for a minute, and almost every single person will give you the wrong answer. So what is morality? In brief, morality is a basic set of principles that people follow. A perfect example would be Osama Bin Laden, a man that believes completely in what he does, and does it to his best. He has his own set of "morals" which he follows perfectly. He is acting morally. On the other hand we have Saddam Hussein; he does not follow any set of standards consistently, and therefore is not considered "moral". Obviously someone who acts morally may be acting morally according to their set of standards, but in our opinion are very wrong. This is because we have different systems of morality. There are three major systems of morality: Immanuel Kant's theory of Deontology, Aristotle's theory on Virtues, and finally the theory of Utility, or the Utilitarian principles of Teleology."
Abstract The paper begins by exploring John Locke's biography as means of providing a better understanding of why he developed the philosophies that he did. It continues by presenting his philosophies, views on government, obligation of revolution, state of nature, and man's reason for establishing government. Lastly, the paper discusses the influence of John Locke's philosophy on modern North America. Specific examples are drawn out from Canadian and American constitutional documents to show the impact that John Locke has had on North America.
From the Paper "As long as people have been able to think and reason, all sorts of different ideas, philosophies, theories and arguments have circulated in society. Some have been good and many have been bad and useless. The good ones have remained known and respected in societies throughout generations and have unsurprisingly impacted the way people live and think. The theories of one particular philosopher by the name of John Locke have had an everlasting impact on modern day North American politics and government. This will be proven through the analysis of John Locke's biography, his political theories, and the influence of his philosophy on the nature of the rule of government in the U.S and Canada."
Abstract The author presents a comprehensive analysis of Aristotle's theory on education, as contained in his "Politics." The author argues that a full reading of Aristotle's "Politics" indicates that, while he perceived of the polis as a natural creation, he maintained that the formulation of the best possible polis required human effort and the diligence of the city's administrators. It shows that Aristotle believes that special attention should be focused upon the education of citizens, inasmuch as it was through education that the city could produce the organisms, so to say, that would keep it healthy and functioning as it should.
From the Paper "Education is the cornerstone of any political system, inasmuch as it helps maintain that system by orienting citizens towards its acceptance and support. That is the crux of Aristotle's argument on education, as presented throughout Politics but as especially focused upon in the eighth book. It is also the cornerstone of totalitarian and authoritarian regimes, whose continued hold on power ultimately depends on the continued production of submissive and meek citizens. It is within the context of this understanding and the relationship between Aristotle's views on education and the practices of totalitarian/authoritarian governments that one finds the claim of Aristotle's being a supporter of liberal democracies quite hard to accept. However, this is precisely the claim that Robert Bartlett forwards in "Aristotle's Science of the Best Regime" (152). Nevertheless, a full reading of Aristotle's Politics indicates that while he perceived of the polis as a natural creation, he maintained that the formulation of the best possible polis required human effort and the diligence of the city's administrators, with special attention focused upon the education of citizens inasmuch as it was through education that the city could produce the organisms, so to say, that would keep it healthy and functioning as it should."
Abstract The paper discusses Rene Descartes's three skeptical doubts and the importance of skepticism in his philosophy. The paper explains that the exercise of skepticism is the backbone of Descartes's philosophical approach and is the defining element of his meditations, insofar as they revolve around the identification and examination of three doubts: the doubt in his own existence, the reality of God, and the existence of the outside world. The importance and implications of these doubts are discussed in the paper in the hope of illustrating that, if we want to arrive at certain knowledge and objective truth, we should begin, as Descartes did, by doubting.
From the Paper "Descartes' third doubt is a natural extension of the first two and particularly interesting insofar as its conclusion is predetermined by the ones arrived at earlier. Quite simply stated, we know that we exist because we are thinking beings and ultimately, conclude that God exists because we have exercised our thinking abilities. However, the outside world is primarily communicated to us as an entity through multiple perceptions and perceptions, in themselves, cannot be accepted as certitudes insofar as they may be misled by the Evil Demon. Nevertheless, the proof for the existence of the external may ultimately emerge from our knowledge of it. Knowledge, insofar as it had earlier been defined by Descartes as indubitable and a product of good God, cannot, therefore be deceiving. Hence, the outside world exists."
Abstract This paper examines how Flora Tristan, Karl Marx, Fredrich Engels, and Charles Darwin all examined and discussed the state of social affairs, but each in critically different ways. It looks at how, although the three theorists share the foundational desire to understand human society, their ways of doing so differ greatly. It shows how Marx, Engels, and Darwin take a clear economic and scientific approach, while Tristan performs unscientific and emotional analysis.
From the Paper "The largest difference between Marx, Darwin and Tristan lies in the influences of religion on their respective work. Marx does not make God part of his arguments; similarly, Darwin's work was absent of religious influence. Tristan, however, claimed she was on a mission from God, and that her work was God's will. In this way, Tristan's work was guided by a desire for change of a higher order than that called for by Marx and Engels. Influenced by morality and religion, Tristan laid out a plan for a utopian future in socialism. Apart from her beliefs in a socialist system, Tristan was also a leading figure in the French feminist movement."
Abstract This paper explains that personal attack is a form of fallacy in which the person presenting an argument is attacked instead of the argument itself, or a person may be attacked because of the association he or she keeps. The author points out that the bandwagon argument refers to the "Appeal to People" because people appeals often sway the population as a whole, which is type of "Fallacy of Relevance" because emotional reaction does not necessarily have any bearing on the truth or falsity of a conclusion. The paper relates that advertisements, organizational literature, CEO and manager appeals, and technology use within an organization are full of fallacies.
Table of Contents
Personal Attack
Bandwagon Argument
Appeal to Pity
Significance to Critical Thinking, Decision Making, and Organizational Examples
From the Paper "In an appeal to pity, the reader is told to agree to the proposition because of the pitiful state of the author. An example of appeal to pity is, "We hope you'll accept our recommendations. We spent the last three months working extra time on it." This argument does not state the advantages of their recommendations as compared to other recommendations, rather states the fact of the number of hours worked on the recommendations. In other words, the arguer is trying to emphasize his/her pitiful state, which has nothing to do with the truth of the proposition."
Abstract The paper first explains Kant's theory of universal law, and defines key concepts and terms. The paper then goes on to argue that Kant ignores conflicting duties and external factors in morality. This argument is supported by hypothetical examples and quotes from philosopher Thomas Nagel's book, "The Last Word".
From the Paper "Human beings guide their actions by instincts and selfish desires. How could it be possible to act differently? The philosopher Immanuel Kant wrote The Foundation of the Metaphysics of Morals as a set of axioms [principles or postulates] that can be used in constructing moral laws based on the use of reason. Kant in his ethics takes his point of departure from the concept of good will: "nothing in the world can possibly be conceived which could be called good without qualifications except a good will." (Kant, 1959, p.9)"
Abstract This paper documents Plato's attitude towards women with evidence and dialogues regarding his ideas about the place of women in an ideal society. It looks at how Plato's view of women seemed to change over his career and how he favoured equal education for them in the "Republic". It also discusses how although he believed that, on average, women were of lesser intellectual talent, he admitted that many women were better than many men and that everyone should be given a chance to prove him or herself.
Outline
Plato's Ideal State
Plato's Thoughts on Women in "The Republic"
Guardians
A Feminist View
Respect
Conclusion
From the Paper "Early in book 5, Socrates sets out his plans for having both male and female guardians. The focus here is essentially a repeat of what is said in previous books: the education is to be the same and the military training should not differ. In effect, all that applies to male guardians should, broadly, apply to female guardians. Plato conceives of the guardians as a distinct class and basically says that there is the ruling class of guardians, who are politically and socially sexless. While he maintains that men and women certainly have different natures, Plato highlights the point that this does not mean that they cannot do the same or similar tasks and have the same roles in the society. He illustrates this point by an example where he compares bald men and those with hair, to men and women. The different nature in the bald or hairy has little effect on their social incorporation, and so neither should this differ when discussing women."
Abstract This paper argues that Thomas Hobbes believes that government is necessary in order to make morality individually rational. This argument is carried out by looking at the distinction between individual rationality and collective rationality (morality). The tension between these two concept is illustrated by the prisoner's dilemma thinking exercise. Drawing on the evidence of the prisoner's dilemma, the paper then explains how government makes it rational for people to be moral. Lastly, the paper briefly compares Hobbes' view with Kant's view of morality.
From the Paper "Like individual rationality, collective rationality is also based on the natural right and desire of self-preservation. As the name entails, collective rationality is the exercise of reason to discover what is in the best interest of all. Three laws of nature are found by collective reasoning. Firstly, because survival is much easier in conditions of peace rather than in war, every one is to "seek peace, and follow it" (Hobbes, 404) unless there is a need for defense. Secondly, to foster peace, individuals have to surrender their rights to all things and "be contented with so much liberty against [others], as [they] would allow [others] against [themselves]" (Hobbes, 405)."
Abstract This essay focuses on the views of Hobbes and Locke in connection with their "social contract" theories. Specifically, this paper illustrates the core differences between their theories by examining how Hobbes and Locke understood the state of nature and men's natural tendencies, as well as the differences in the purpose and structure of their social contract.
From the Paper "Thomas Hobbes and John Locke collectively maintained that prior to the emergence of the state, a state of nature existed in which there was no order or law, though they strongly differed in their views on the state of nature. A state of nature refers to conditions in which no traditional means for morality are present; for example, religion, universal altruisms, etc. To resolve the concerns associated with the state of nature, both Hobbes and Locke developed social contract theories to address why citizens should submit to a government and be bound by a social agreement."
This paper analyzes the similarities and differences of Jesus Christ and the Prophet Mohammed while also examining the basic fundamentals of both the Christian and Islamic faiths.
Abstract This paper delves into the lives and historic accomplishments of Mohammed, considered by many to be the greatest prophet of all times and Jesus, regarded by his followers as the son of God. This paper details the various similarities between the two men including the fact that both were known to spend much time in solitary contemplation and spiritual thought. Both Jesus and Mohammed preached the belief in one God. This paper also examines the dramatic differences between the two which centered around divinity. While Mohammed is seen as the most important prophet to the followers of Islam he is not regarded as a deity. On the other hand a large portion of Christians believe that Jesus is the true son of God and the cornerstone of their faith. This paper also discusses the similarities and differences in Islam and Christianity. The writer contends that followers of both Islam and Christianity feel it is their duty to spread the word about their religion in an attempt to convert others.
Table of Contents:
The Life of Jesus
The Life of Mohammed
Differences Between the Two Men
Evangelism
Sources
From the Paper "Mohammed (Arab for "the praised one") was born to Abdallah and Amina of the family of Zuhra. He had a difficult childhood. Born into poverty, his father died around the time of his birth. When he was six years old his mother also died, and he was adopted by his grandfather, Abd-Al-Mutallib. When his grandfather died only two years later, he was adopted by his uncle, Abu Talib, who raised him and remained an important person to him for the rest of his life. Not much more about his childhood can be confirmed but when he was 2t, he married Chaddidja, a rich widow and trader. He traveled with her via caravan to fairs. This life of business made him a wealthy man, and he was able to spend much of his time alone in meditation."
