Abstract This paper examines how Socrates, born in 470 or 469 BC and executed at the age of 70, presents how one can act solely on the grounds of his belief and dedicate the life for the ultimate values. It discusses whether his refusal to obey the city's orders were contradictory to his idea of obedience to the laws. Contrary to the view that sees Socrates as a defender of civil disobedience, it also argues that Socrates is a true defender of the laws who has dedicated the life for the active practice of the citizenship, using his acute reason and knowledge. It also shows how Socrates is different from conventional civil disobedients, such as Ghandi, and Martin Luther King Jr.
From the Paper "Socrates? refusals to participate in the trial of the ten generals, and the arrest of Leon the Salaminian are in fact clear examples of Socrates? use of reason in political decision. During the time when Socrates served as a member of the Council because it was his tribe's turn, the city ordered the presiding committee to form the body of the ten generals to rescue Athenian survivors in the naval battle (Apology 32a-b). Socrates reasoned that the city's order was illegal, so voted against it (Apology 32b). The orators were ready to prosecute him, but he argued that he would risk the death, rather than follow the city's order (Apology 32c). He also refused to obey the city's order to bring Leon from Salamis in order to prosecute him. He reasoned that prosecuting Leon is illegal because his guilt was manipulated by the city. Some people might think that it is ironical to disobey the city's order for the sake of the laws."
This paper discusses Ludwig Andreas Feuerbach's definition of alienation, which is radically different from the understanding of the term in common usage today and rooted in the human conception of God.
Abstract This paper explains that Feuerbach means that humans created God by defining all of the essentially redeeming aspects of God and projecting them outward onto a theoretical and analytical God-concept. The author relates Feuerbach's idea that theology, with its abstract study of the object of God, which is a projection of human attributes, was a type of anthropology. The paper stresses that, therefore, while Feuerbach properly defines theology as a misdirected anthropology, he also points out that the consequence of this misdirection is alienation.
From the Paper "Karl Marx, like Feuerbach, also was deeply influenced by Hegelian ideas of dialectic and the development of history toward a final stage. Similarly, he rejected Hegel's understanding of alienation, but unlike Feuerbach, Marx placed the locus of alienation not in any philosophical misunderstanding of religion, but in the actual hardships and difficulty that working people were forced to feel because of the working conditions that developed from market pressures. Here, Marx saw that the complaints of working people as being the actual source of their difficulties. Alienation did not occur because of their inability to properly understand the attributes of their own humanity, but because real social and economic forces kept them working at the best of a basically inhuman structure?the market."
Abstract This paper discusses how the very purpose of life is to build individual consciousness and how the question of a first principle arises on the current premise of ethics surrounding the debate on the ethicality of euthanasia. It looks at how opponents to euthanasia have viewed most, if not all, their arguments from the moralistic perspective that there is an intrinsic value to human life and, therefore, it needs to be preserved until death occurs naturally. It attempts, therefore, to focus on the real ethical issues revolving around euthanasia and evaluate them against a commonly held view as to what constitutes a moral judgment.
From the Paper "While there is certainly some validity in this argument, there also needs to be cognition of the fact that there is individual choice involved in exercising the right to determine whether or not he or she would like to go through such an experiential state. Nowhere in metaethics is there any implication of Divine enforcement of such consciousness on individuals. Rather there is an emphasis on individual effort towards higher and higher states of consciousness. It would also be of relevance here, to note that the theological view of the individual right to determine the time of death has varied down the ages."
Abstract Discusses basic philosophical questions, including "Do I exist?" and "Does God exist?" Examines Descartes's justification of the existence of God, his line of linear thinking, cause and effect argument, and use of thought to justify his own existence.
From the Paper "Rene Descartes, in his "Meditations on First Philosophy" endeavors to resolve the most enduring philosophical questions ever to challenge man, namely: Do I exist? And: Does God exist? His second and third meditations, translated by Donald A. Cress, ..."
Abstract Martin Luther King of the modern United States and Lao-Tzu of ancient China were two great philosophers whose great differences stemmed from their core beliefs. The paper shows that Lao-Tzu believed that the way for humankind to achieve happiness was to connect fully with nature and to not try to control everyday events. It shows, in comparison, that Martin Luther King believed that humankind should confront evil and correct the wrongs of the world.
From the Paper "King's philosophy was more in line with that of Confucius, who believed that people must make a social difference. However, Lao-Tzu's approach to "do nothing" was not the same as King's approach to "do nothing" when demonstrators were attacked. Lao-Tzu's view was mystical. He would have recognized that while Martin Luther's King's approach may have appeared to be "doing nothing" at first, actually it was the final action of an elaborate plan designed to make a very big social difference. It started with King's followers educating the activists very careful about the philosophy of non-violence. They planned where they would demonstrate, and when. They planned what they would wear and exactly what they would do when they ?did nothing.?"
This paper discusses the topic of "evolution and creation", linking this to the contemporary discussion between science and religion, based on book "Religion and Science: Historical and Contemporary Issues" by Ian Barbour.
Abstract This paper relates that Barbour's book "Religion and Science: Historical and Contemporary Issues" takes a chronological approach starting with the medieval picture of the Universe as a synthesis between Aristotelian cosmology and Christian theology. The author points out that Barbour argues that nowhere is the divide between religion and science wider than in the debate between biologists and theologians and, in particular, in the debate between evolutionists and creationists, which goes to the very core of the divide between science and religion. The paper relates that evolution is a process of change over time that refers to the formation and development of life on earth. The idea that all living things evolved from simple organisms and changed through the ages to produce millions of species is known as the theory of organic evolution.
From the Paper "In his book, Barbour discusses the knowledge of historical geology prior to Darwin, and how Cuvier had reconstructed fossilized bones from extinct species, using these reconstructions to point out, to his students, that "a variety of creatures had been produced by special acts of divine intervention". Barbour the discusses the work of Hutton, who, through his research on large-scale geological processes, such as volcanoes and sedimentation, had concluded that these processes, acting across geological time, could act to provide different life forms with different habitats, and could also act to destroy life forms at different times to make way for other, new, life forms. Thus, Barbour argues, using Hutton's work as a prime example, "the need to reinterpret the Biblical accounts of the creation of living things was apparent to most literate persons long before Darwin's specific views made this need more acute"."
This paper discusses that' two thousand years after its original composition, Plato's famous "Apology of Socrates" at his trial is one of the most profound and powerful rhetorical moments.
Abstract This paper explains that Socrates begins his speech by addressing the issue of his alleged wisdom, specifically in regard to the claim that he believes himself to be wiser than all others, a claim, which, as he points out, he himself does not hold to be true in the very least. The author points out that Socrates discusses the issues of approaching death and whether or not he is sorry or feels remorse for taking actions that might ultimately incur his death. The paper reports that, if Socrates believes that he is acting rightly, then he must obey his conscious rather than the laws of man, which might prevent his death' but would make him incorrect of the eyes of god.
From the Paper "Socrates then goes on to consider what this could possibly mean, especially since he himself considers himself not to be wise at all. Nonetheless, Socrates argues, if the Oracle so stated it, then it, in some sense, must be true, indeed. Socrates argues that he, in fact, lacks wisdoms, but what separates him from so many other men is the very knowledge of his own wisdom, that he ?knows what he does not know.? "
Abstract The conflict between determinism and free will is a long-standing one. It is one of those philosophical issues that might never be fortunate enough to receive a unanimously agreed upon solution, and, for this reason, it is up to each person how he views the issues and seeks to resolve it. This paper explains that, as with most philosophical theories, the relationship of determinism and free will is a contentious issue because they oppose each other, and in order to support one, you need to give up the other. It is generally believed that the two cannot exist together for they are in conflict with each other and, thus, are incompatible. This paper provides definitions of the terms in order to help the reader decide whether the two are compatible or not and if free will has any place in the doctrine of determinism.
From the Paper "Determinism therefore ignores the role of choices or moral responsibility and primarily focuses on the role of previous events or cause in the creation of a new event. For example, when a person misbehaves with an elderly determinism would free him of his moral responsibility to have behaved more properly and instead study the causes of his behavior. Determinists believe that behind every current event is a past cause or event and keeping this view in mind, we would probably acquit the misbehaving person and instead accuse those past causes and events that mad him behave the way he did."
Abstract Martin Heidegger's "The Origin of the Work of Art" is no less ambitious a project than an attempt to discern the very source of art. As such, he attempts to investigate where art itself comes from. The paper shows that, in this complex work, he looks into the relationship of art, the artist, and truth. Further, he discusses the interpretation of art in terms of a circle of interpretation with many different aspects.
From the Paper "The term hermeneutic circle is simply another way of describing Heidegger's circle of interpretation in art. In "The Origin of the Work of Art", Heidegger notes that you cannot fully understand a single part of a work until you understand the whole. Further, he notes that you cannot understand the whole of a work of art until you understand all of the parts of the art. On the surface, Heidegger's circle of interpretation seems tautologous and circular, yet his circle is not a trap."
Abstract This paper describes the significance and importance of happiness using the Kantian view of moral law and Aristotelian ethics and theory of virtue. This paper discusses the attainment of happiness by means of adherence to virtue, according to Aristotle, and the fulfillment of duties as described by Immanuel Kant.
From the Paper "Immanual Kant puts major emphasis on the concept and idea of duty. Duties are defined as specific obligations of the will. This will is the only object that can be considered good without limitation. A good will "corrects the whole principle of action and brings it into conformity with universal ends". Further on, a good will is not considered to be good because it is capable of accomplishing something good, but it is rather considered to be good because of its volition and it is considered to be good in itself. It is discovered that "the more a cultivated reason purposely occupies itself with the enjoyment of life, so much the further does one get away from true satisfaction" It can therefore be concluded that reason is destined to a "far worthier purpose's of one's existence" and not to happiness is reason properly destined.? "Reason is not sufficiently competent to guide the will surely with regard to its objects and the satisfaction of all our needs" and since reason is given to us nevertheless as a faculty, that is, as one that is to influence the will.? Thus the purpose for the existence of the reason is to produce a will that is good in itself as opposed to good for some particular purpose, such as the attainment of happiness."
Abstract This paper looks at how the "Enlightenment" was an intellectual movement that took place in the 17th and 18th centuries in Europe and North America when a group of writers, philosophers, and scientists started to apply the principles of science, empiricism, and rationalism to religious, social, political, and economic issues. It briefly describes the background of Enlightenment and discusses how the movement was an attempt to apply the principles of the scientific revolution to the problems of society, a movement that declared scientific and empirical reasoning as the basis of all human knowledge. It looks at how it attacked superstition, and ignorance and believed that the problems of the society, such as economic well-being and politics, could be solved by the application of such knowledge.
From the Paper "It is significant that the term "enlightenment" was coined by the writers of the period themselves who firmly believed that they were emerging from centuries of darkness and ignorance into an era of rational thought, scientific development, and respect for humanity. (Tackett, para 1) While it is not possible to put exact dates on the start and end of the enlightenment period, it generally refers to the events that took place during more than hundred years from the 1680s to the 1790s. (Kramnick, para on "Historical and Political Setting") It is arguable that we are still living in the era of "enlightenment" but the nineteenth and twentieth centuries have been termed as the "post-enlightenment" period and the "age of enlightenment" is considered to have ended with the tumultuous events of the French and American Revolutions."
Abstract This paper explains that, ultimately, Nietzsche has little important insight to offer on the subject of women, a disappointing oversight from a philosopher who repeatedly offered such perceptive and daring views on many important subjects. The author points out that Nietzsche argues that much of a woman's philosophy becomes distorted, including the maternal instinct, and that a woman's desire for children ultimately becomes a way for the woman to make up for her sexual indiscretions. The paper relates that Nietzsche reveals sexist attitudes in the terms that he uses to refer to women, which include cows, cats, and birds. This was an especially strong insult in the language of the time, which saw these creatures as lower animals that were far inferior to man in many important ways, including the use of reason and intellect.
From the Paper "Despite the clear disapproval of the racist and sexist aspects of his work, Nietzsche has nonetheless made a clear and important contribution to both modern philosophy and to the culture of the modern western world. His often-quoted idea of the "superman", his views on the will to power, and his shattering statement that God is dead, have made an undeniable impact on the political and social landscape of Europe and North America. He is one of the rare philosophers whose name sparks instant recognition in almost any North American, a true testament to the lasting power of his ideals, and the degree to which work has infiltrated modern life."
Tags: attitudes, contradictory, sexist, society, language
Abstract This paper explains the key concepts of Hinduism, karma, the caste system, the four permissible goals, the ways of salvation and the infinite manifestations of God, and how they affect the culture of India. The paper explains the concept behind the Law of Karma, the Hindu caste system, the different paths toward perfection, and the way a Hindu can pay debts to the gods. The paper also lists the names of the different gods and goddesses in Hinduism and describes some of the conflicts that the practices and beliefs of Hinduism have with modern society.
From the Paper "Hinduism is a complex and seemingly contradictory religion. It is also a way of life. The key concepts of Karma, The Caste System, the four permissible goals, the ways of salvation, and the infinite manifestations of God combine to create a culture immersed in ritual. Karma binds the belief in the transmigration of the soul and the hope of reaching Moksha (salvation) to right behavior. The Caste System, as delineated in the Vedas 1, serves to stratify society and eventually leads to discrimination and social strife. The Four Permissible Goals of the Hindu Religion "recognize that men naturally and therefore legitimately seek, in the course of many rebirths, four aims in life" (Noss, 178). They are pleasure, power, morality, and salvation.2 There are three ways to reach this salvation. These are the Way of Works, the Way of Knowledge, and the Way of devotion.3 Finally, the multiple faces of God serve to address the many needs of the Hindu believer."
Abstract The paper explains that Machiavelli and Hobbes have similar views of society and on the function of government; the major difference between the two writers is that Machiavelli describes the leader as using power and fear in a more obvious way, while Hobbes's view is based on a society where control is built into a system, with this motivating people to want to obey the rules of society. The author points out that a similarity is that both writers reject the traditional ideas of religion as a means of maintaining control. The paper relates another similarity between the works, which is that they are both based on looking at the real world, not some ideal world that does not really exist.
From the Paper "Hobbes also extends this by arguing that differences in religious beliefs are actually a major threat to a stable government. Since religious beliefs cannot be forced on individuals and cannot be made to be the same, Hobbes argues that they can remain in society, but they cannot be the basis of maintaining order. To maintain order and control, Hobbes argues that there must be something that applies to everyone. Since religious or Christian ideas cannot take on this role, Hobbes concludes that government and religion need to be separated."
Abstract This paper explains Brian Tracy's belief that humans do not make decisions rationally or logically, but, instead, make decisions emotionally and then seek to justify them on a rational, logical, or rational-thought basis. The paper also explains and provides examples of logical fallacies and looks at how they are often used in arguments. The paper then looks at the implications that decisions based on emotions and arguments based on logical fallacies have for society and the democratic process.
From the Paper "For these reasons, the subject of logical fallacies tends to bend our imagination, or even go unnoticed. Logical fallacies are typically rooted in the emotional construct of the argument. Logical fallacies are based in emotional reasoning rather than critical, logical, or rational thought processes. In other words, when we make decisions emotionally, we most often void out logical thinking processed. While emotions serve as the motivating force behind our choices, we seek to move toward a logical basis so that our decision can be based on a foundation other than how it makes me feel."
