Abstract This essay deals with John Locke's views and promotion of empiricism. The essay proves that Locke's theory of empiricism is still relevant in today's society. The main points of the essay deal with Locke's rejection of innate ideas, the fact that all ideas are a result of reflection or sensation, and that observations are either simple or complex.
From the Paper "The idea that humans are born with prior knowledge is known as innate ideas. Innatists such as Plato believe that mental contents exist in the mind prior to any past experience. Locke highly disagrees with this concept and rejects every aspect of an idea being innate. Locke believes that since children and mentally disabled people cannot rationalize or think abstract thoughts like a mature person, ideas cannot be innate. Locke states ??"tis evident that all children and idiots, have not the least apprehension or thought of them: and the want of that is enough to destroy that universal assent, which must needs be the necessary concomitant of all innate truths"? (Locke, 60). Locke believes that since children and those who are mentally disabled cannot think as complexly as grown adults, it is because they have to gain knowledge through life experiences, therefore, ideas cannot be innate. Locke also suggests that ideas cannot be innate because he strongly believes in, and promotes the theory of empiricism. Locke believes "the mind to be, as we say, white paper, void of all characters, without any ideas" (Locke, 109). Locke holds that we come into the world with a clear mind ready to learn. If innate ideas were true then children would have the same knowledge as an adult has, though it is clear that children do not. Today, Locke's rejection of innate ideas and promotion of empiricism is an acceptable explanation for the way humans think. Humanity accepts Locke's explanation because it is very relevant and cannot be disproved."
Abstract Gottfried Leibniz's philosophical system relied on the foundational principles of non-contradiction and sufficient reason. The paper shows that in his "Discourse on Metaphysics" (1686), Leibniz argued that the perfection of God was demonstrable through the principle of non-contradiction and that His perfection meant that God's creations must also be perfect. The paper compares this view with that of Baruch Spinoza in whose "Ethics" (1675), the pantheistic argument was that there was but one substance, and that substance was God, which left no room for contingency or free will. In Spinoza's view the impression of contingency was merely created by the inadequacy of the human mind to grasp the completeness of creation.
From the Paper "Spinoza held, therefore, that because God was all-powerful and perfect nothing in his creation could take place without his willing it to be so, which deprived his created things of agency and left them only with its illusion. Leibniz, however, wished to demonstrate how, despite the perfection of God and his complete control over all of his creation, he allowed contingency and free will a role in the universe. Leibniz immediately established, via the principle of noncontradiction, that God was perfection. Anything that is not capable of perfection "in the highest degree" is not perfect (581)."
Abstract This paper looks at the issue of abortion as it may have been discussed by the philosophers Plato and Aristotle in "The Republic" and "Nicomachean Ethics", respectively. While obviously neither philosopher discussed the issue directly, the writer believes the ideas and beliefs of both of them show a definite relation to abortion. Mostly, the paper focuses on the morality aspects raised in these two works, and then relates it all back to abortion. The paper concludes that despite some differences between the two, both Plato and Aristotle would likely be against abortion, based both on the goodness of the individual and the community.
From the Paper "It appears that such an idea would lead to the conclusion that everything is permissible because everything leads to the good, but that is obviously not what Aristotle means. In fact, Aristotle differentiates between acts which the actor believes to be good and those that are in fact good. The woman who seeks an abortion might believe she is seeking the best for herself and the unborn fetus. However, even if that were true, Aristotle, like Plato, is designing a moral philosophy which considers not what is good for the individual alone but what is good for the community."
Abstract This paper discusses Judith Thomson's article "A Defence of Abortion" where she states her opinion that some abortions are permissible and that fetuses are not human beings at the moment of conception. It then compares it to Don Marquis "Why Abortion is Immoral" in which he claims the opposite - that abortions are always impermissible and that fetuses are human beings from the moment of conception because they have a future. The author then shows, in the bulk of the paper, why he agrees with Thomson's argument.
From the Paper "This leads me to believe that if a woman has an unwanted pregnancy, she has a right to end it before the fetus is viable, because the fetus's life is dependent on the life of the biological mother. For example, if the mother were to incur a fatal injury before the fetus is viable the fetus would die, but if the baby is viable the baby could survive whether the mother lives or not. This is the first point in my opinion - that the fetus's future is able to be controlled by someone other than the biological mother. Before this point the mother has a right to do what she wants, because it is a part of her body and if the baby is unwanted, she is not doing anything morally wrong, because she is not hurting any person but herself. After the point where the baby is viable, it is morally wrong to have an abortion because that is a form of murder."
Abstract This paper begins by looking at Plato's views on education in which he believes that educators must have a deep concern for the well-being and future of their subjects. He believed that education is a moral industry and the goal of educators should be to search for truth and virtue. They should use this truth and virtue to guide those that they teach. It then shows how John Locke's thoughts in "Some Thoughts Concerning Education" was similar to Plato's views in "The Republic", as Locke asserted that the goal of education is not to create a scholar, but rather to create a virtuous man.
From the Paper Plato revealed his ideas for an ideal society in The Republic, providing great detail regarding the shape and curriculum of an educational system. According to Plato, in an ideal society, the guardian class would be solely responsible for overseeing all matters. As an ideal society would already be perfect, there would be no need for change. Every person would have his place and slaves, craftsmen and merchants would understand what was expected of them. Slaves would serve others. Craftsmen and merchants would serve apprenticeships. And the guardian class would be educated to become rulers."
Abstract This paper explores how Freud offers a pessimistic view of human nature and human society in his book. It shows how Freud extends his theory of the individual's intra-psychic conflicts, such as between ego and id, and between the conscious and the unconscious mind, to the public arena of civil society. In this way, Freud comes to define human civilization as the cause of intense conflict, both between the individuals within the social community and between the individual and society.
From the Paper "According to Freud, the claims of the individual and the claims of the community are always in conflict and, in order for civilization to exist, "civilized man has exchanged a portion of his possibilities of happiness for a portion of security" (63). The result, for the individual is the surrendering of most of their instinctual drives and urges for sexual and personal freedom in return for societal protection and security. However, perhaps surprisingly, Freud does not consider sexual privations to be the most acute, but concludes that the renunciation of aggression is the hardest privation of all. In Civilization, and its Discontents, Freud argues that the price for the continued existence of civil society is by a communal renunciation of instinctual gratification, and the associated suffering experienced by the individual through the repression of instinctual urges and personal satisfaction."
Tags: conflict, civil, society, community, social, public
Abstract This paper details the origins of the religion of Scientology, discusses its basic philosophy and principles and explains how this philosophy is different from, and yet similar to, both modern science and modern religions. The paper goes on to discuss some of the dangers and criticisms associated with the religion and cites some of the reasons people continue to be drawn to the practice of Scientology.
From the Paper "Scientology was founded in the 1950s by science fiction author L. Ron Hubbard. The basis if the religion is to improve mental health and personal emotional well-being through scientific and spiritual principles. Scientology adheres to the notion that regular science has not been able to answer many of the questions that man has asked himself from time immemorial. Some of the most important of these unanswered questions are the questions of who we are as people, what we consist of, where we come from, where we are going, and what we are doing here on this planet ("Scientology: Its Background and Origins"). Since science has not been able to answer any of these questions with any degree of certainty or accuracy, it has been left up to mankind to find the answers to those questions through alternate methods. This is where scientology comes in."
Applys both Kant's ethical theories and utilitarian ethical theories to the case of "The Accountant's Dilemma" and then argues that the utilitarian theories are superior to Kant's.
1,400 words (approx. 5.6 pages), 1 source, 2002, $ 53.95
Abstract One of the problems of ethical analysis is the fact that the application of two ethical theories to the same case can actually produce two different choices for action. As will be seen in the following application of utilitarianism and Kant's ethical theories to the case study of the "The Accountant's Dilemma" not only do these theories provide two different choices, but both present valid arguments for each choice. However, it will be argued that the utilitarian theory presents the preferred ethical alternative.
Presents an argument that Socrates was guilty of one of the charges leveled at him in the famous trial brought against him by the democratic office of Athens.
650 words (approx. 2.6 pages), 1 source, 2002, $ 26.95
Abstract The dialogue by Plato titled "The Apology", is more or less the trial of Socrates by the democratic office of Athens. As is generally known, Socrates is condemned to death. Although he presents a good defence for himself, the dialogue nevertheless results in the establishment of his guilt. In the dialogue in question, Socrates is charged with two major violations against the City-State or Athens. The charges which were made, were that he was 'teaching what was above and below the earth' (challenging the religion of the state), and that he was 'corrupting the youth'. It will be argued that although he was innocent of challenging the existence of the 'gods', it will also be argued that he can be understood as guilty with respect to corrupting the youth. His guilt will be presented in terms of the challenges which he makes to the ideas surrounding democracy.
Abstract The discussion of Spinoza's monism and its impact upon our understanding of the autonomous self necessitates - prior to addressing the issue itself - a choice as to whether or not to accept the assumptions upon which is based the "truth of Spinoza's monism". In this context, this paper will take a dualistic approach to this question. First, Spinoza's assumptions and his monistic theory will be examined to demonstrate some of their flaws, and therefore their irrelevance to the issue of the autonomous self. The second approach requires the provisional acceptance of Spinoza's assumptions and his propositions as to the monism of God. It will be argued that, although Spinoza's argument allows a degree of limited autonomy for the self as a causal agent, this freedom is based upon our finite ignorance of the causal relationship between ourselves as finite beings and God as an infinite entity.
Abstract The following paper will consider the Samurai in four parts: history, the development of the code, the belief and way of the Samurai, and the Bushido code.
Abstract This paper discusses the forces of good and evil and how man's character and nature is influenced by both childhood experiences and genetic composition. While in my personal opinion, a person's nature is dependent on his upbringing, some scientists maintain that there may be some genetic connection which urges a man to indulge in evil acts.
Analyzes Plato's conception of love and whether it allows for a love characterized by respect for individual differences by examining four different writings.
900 words (approx. 3.6 pages), 2 sources, 2002, $ 35.95
Abstract This four-page essay examines and analyzes Plato's Symposium, Nussbaum's essay, The Speech of Alcibiades: A Reading of the Symposium"; and Vlastos'essay, "The Individual as the Object of Love in Plato," in terms of whether Plato's conception of love allows for the love between individuals, a love that is characterized by respect for individual idiosyncrasies and autonomy.
Abstract It focuses mainly on the latter's views, but uses Hobbes as a point of comparison. In his "Two Treatises of Government" (1690), Locke sets forth a view that the state exists to preserve national rights of citizens. This was significant in his views on property, as we will see. Property is inherently the joining of the earth - which is common to all men - and the application of one's body - or his/her labor. The fruit of that union is considered property by Locke, who goes onto argue that property was, therefore, a natural right. Hobbes, on the other hand, argued that property was the effect of the commonwealth, which exists only through civil laws given by the sovereign. This essay will argue that Locke's account of the methods of and limits of property acquisition in the state of nature differ from those of Hobbes. Locke argued that property was a natural right; Hobbes did not.
Abstract This paper examines the ethical issues of just war as they relate to the US-Iraq war and of gun control. The two cases illustrate the ethical dilemmas that underlie seemingly simple issues.
