Abstract Three different approaches to philosophy are the Sophist (speculation about subjects such as law, morality, ethics, politics and human rights), Platonic (on issues such love, the soul, virtue, justice, ethics and politics) and Aristotelian (an in-depth and scientific understanding of reality) approaches. By considering these three approaches in turn, this paper shows how they differ and how they show a trend in philosophical thinking. This overview of the three approaches are concluded by a consideration of which of these views most closely resembles the author's own approach to philosophical thought.
From the Paper "Comparing these three theories shows one significant trend that occurs with the philosophical approaches. The earliest theory of Aristotle is based on a scientific and theoretical approach that attempts to determine the underlying principles of philosophy. Plato's philosophies combine this theoretical approach with a focus on considering more meaningful issues in real life, such as love and ethics. The Sophist view then continues the trend actually rejecting the theoretical and scientific view and focusing directly on those issues that have a direct relevance to human life."
Abstract This paper examines how, within any organization, there are different groups of people who possess different ethical and moral values and how most of the times, the ethical values and norms of any given group are under a conflict with that of the others. It shows how such conflict of values not only affects the relationships of these groups but also harms the long-term interests of the organization. It evaluates how, for these purposes, organizations often devise policies, which are helpful in addressing the ethical and moral concerns of each group and in resolving the conflict. In addition to this, continuous and open interaction between the groups can also prove to be helpful in resolving the conflict.
From the Paper "In societies like that of the United States, where the population is becoming increasingly diverse with respect to race, ethnicity, religion and culture, resolution of ethical conflicts is crucial for the well being of the society. In this regard, the organizations play an important role as they provide an opportunity to these groups to come in close contact with each other and resolve their conflicts. However, one should note that the resolution of ethical conflicts is not an easy task."
Abstract This paper analyzes and examines the multitude of issues related to the importance of critical thinking. The author discusses the importance of critical thinking, the essential elements of critical thinking, and reviews tactics individuals use to guide their thinking process. Finally, this paper concludes with recommendations for improving how individuals utilize critical thinking.
From the Paper "Individuals and researchers should never underestimate the importance of critical thinking. Critical thinking affects each and every individual's life, as well as society in general, both in the short-term and long run. Examples of decisions involving critical thinking include economic choices, educational decisions, occupational choices, political decisions, religious choices, social choices, etc. What makes critical thinking so invaluable is that decisions made with little or no critical thinking frequently backfire, creating greater difficulties. In order to avoid potential difficulties and unexpected surprises, individuals and organizations must continually engage in critical thinking, adapting their ways as time and other factors dictate."
Abstract This work deals with Kant's understanding of the basis for moral actions taken from his work entitled "The Fundamental Principles of the Metaphysic of Morals". He believes that there is one criterion for moral obligation which he refers to as the "categorical imperative". A large part of this essay discusses the four ways in which this "categorical imperative" can be formulated.
From the Paper "In presenting the one criterion for moral obligation, Immanuel Kant first rejects other moral traditions before his time: among them, the virtue theory, which bases morality on good character traits; and the consequential theory, which bases it on the consequences of actions. In response, he argues that moral actions are based only on a "supreme principle of morality" ? one that is objective, rational and freely chosen -- which he called the categorical imperative."
Tags: Kant, Categorical, Imperative, morality, obligation, objective, formula
This paper presents a comparison between the beliefs of Thomas Hobbes and John Locke who represent two very different ways of looking at human nature and the theories of government that they have generated.
Abstract The writer illustrates how political theorists have formulated justifications for the type of state that each would establish. Hobbes believed that human relations were inborn and could only be superficially controlled by government, whereas Locke saw man as basically being given the ability to know right from wrong by his Creator.
From the Paper "In a Hobbesian world, mankind needs such a power to defend its own interests. Therefore, Hobbes concludes, ?The only way to erect such a common power. . is, to confer all their power and strength upon one man, or upon one assembly of men, that may reduce all their wills, by plurality of voices, into one will.? (58) Hobbe's state, as a result, is totalitarian and fixed; once institutions are established, they are not subject to change, since the presumption is that the state is already ideal and can?t be wrong. There is also no concept of civil rights or individual freedom."
This paper discusses how in Plato's "Gorgias" he uses a dialogue, question-and-answer format to present some of Socrates? arguments against the pursuit of pleasure as the primary purpose in life.
Abstract The writer traces three stages. In order for Socrates to make this argument he first establishes that it is desirable to live a good life. He then attempts to prove that there is a distinction between what is good and what is pleasant. Finally he draws the conclusion that one should choose what is good over what is pleasant, which requires self-discipline.
From the Paper "The initial assertion developed by Socrates in order to make his argument is that the good life is a desirable life. This statement is not challenged; rather, the difference between Socrates and Callicles, as Plato portrays them, is that Callicles believes that a good life and a pleasant life, or a life spent seeking pleasure, are identical. The premise that a good life is desirable is just assumed to be true as it is basic to both men's beliefs. However, in order to refute Callicles definitions of "good", Socrates next builds a logical argument to demonstrate that "pleasure" and "good" are not interchangeable."
Abstract Aristotle's "The Nicomachean Ethics" sets out several of his most important principles, including basic definitions of good and evil, as well as a definition of happiness, which is in fact closely allied to the concepts of virtue and good. This paper looks at these Aristotelian definitions as put forth in his treatise on ethics. The paper then compares these classical ideals of good and virtue with Thomas Hobbes's writings on these same concepts in his best-known work, "Leviathan".
From the Paper "Hobbes argues that the natural state of people is violent and inclined to devolve toward the bestial. Aristotle argues that that the natural state of humans inclines towards the good; much of the arguments that he puts forth in The Nicomachean Ethics contains at its core the Platonic assumption that evil is simply ignorance and can be educated away. Aristotle firmly believes that everyone has it within himself or herself (although probably just himself in Aristotle's case!) to become a better person through thought, observation, education, and experience (and of course the practice of philosophy). Not only does each person have this capacity, Aristotle argued, but has the moral obligation to try to improve."
Abstract This paper examines Aristotle's theory of an ideal state by analyzing the nature of Polis, the city-state and its workings in his book "Politics", a work which actually addresses issue of ethics and morality more than politics as we mean it today. It looks at how Aristotle's ideal state, whatever its specific form of government, maintains its legitimacy by serving the good life for the people as a whole. It shows how Aristotle's description of the state as an association of free men aligns him with democratic theory, though he expresses a distaste for democracy at a certain level and finds that there are certain classes in society that should not be given the right to participate because they are not worthy.
From the Paper "The city contributes to the possibility of absolute justice, sought by human beings through political interaction in the city. Based on his concept of absolute justice, Aristotle finds that there are three right forms of government--monarchy, aristocracy, and democracy. Each of these can also degenerate into a lesser form: monarchy into tyranny, aristocracy into oligarchy, and democracy into mob-rule. Aristotle can be considered a democratic theorist in several respects. One of his abiding concerns is with the constitution of the state and the agreement it involves between the ruler and the ruled. Aristotle sees the state as a natural development, but he also sees it as a voluntary association of human beings based on the fact that man is a political animal and that people thus come together because of common interest to the degree that it contributes to the good life of each person."
Abstract Dualism is the theory that the mind and the body (mind and matter) are two distinct things. This paper examines the theory as set forth by philosopher Rene Descartes in his work "Meditations on First Philosophy" in which he discusses what has come to be called the Cartesian dualism - that the mind and body are separate and that the mind is incorporeal.
From the Paper "Inherent in Descartes's argument is the mind-body problem and the need to understand what is the mind and what is the body as well as how they are connected and related. The mind is our awareness, the one thing that we can know is real. It is the site of rational thought. It is subject to the senses in that it acquires information through the senses, but it is not a sense in itself. Descartes says he had no doubts as to the nature of "body," though now he has had to reconsider this position given that he realizes all the elements of the body are known to him only through the senses that he does not trust any longer. He says if he had been asked to explain the nature of the body, he would have explained that it was whatever could be determined by a certain shape, and comprised in a certain location, whatever fills a certain space so as to exclude from it every other body, whatever can be apprehended by the senses, and whatever can be moved in certain ways. In truth, he is identifying the body through various characteristics perceived by the senses and in no way identifying the body itself. The mind is his awareness and his reality, but the body may be an illusion sent to deceive him. Here he shows an intuitive understanding of duality, for the mind is trusted for what it develops through reason even as the senses are linked with the physical body that is in effect fooling the mind."
This paper examines the use of deadly force by law enforcement agents and concludes that law enforcement's recourse to deadly force where necessary should not be significantly reduced.
Abstract This paper evaluates both sides of the issue about the use of deadly force by law enforcement agents by using a formal logic format of two premises and a conclusion. This paper states that suing every cop who uses deadly force or disarming law enforcement altogether is not the answer to problems that attend the use of deadly force. The author concludes that there is compelling evidence that law enforcement organizations have been conscientious in recent years about developing an ethos of public protection and service and firearm safety. Annotated Bibliography.
From the Paper "Such attitudes and trends help explain why police personnel are increasingly at risk. Police are put in the position of continually second-guessing themselves in the matter of use of deadly force. This means that law-enforcement effectiveness can suffer, which can further erode public safety and make respect for the law an irrelevant social proposition."
Abstract This paper discusses that Boethius? belief regards free will seems self-evident, yet some religious philosophers have held that our actions are determined by God. This paper points out that Boethius, a Platonist deriving elements from both Plato and Aristotle, considers human nature a distinct entity and argues that Christ embodied both a divine nature and human nature. The author believes that Boethius sets forth the essential paradox in Christian thought between freedom and determinism, with determinism inherent in what he calls "God's universal foreknowledge," meaning the fact that God already knows all that is to happen.
From the Paper "Boethius laments his situation and the changes that have been wrought in his life. He is now imprisoned and is forced to look within for answers, given that his outer world is no more than a prison cell. He is changed physically in that old age has come upon him too early. Happiness is to be found in conquering this inner world, represented for Boethius not only within himself but also in his writings as he conveys his inner world to others and finds ways to shape his own relationship with that inner world through the written word. Lady Philosophy suggests that the poet must seek the truth within and that since all things are ruled by reason, it is wrong for the individual to be sick with despair when he or she can seek the truth by looking inward to find God."
Abstract John Locke wrote at a time of social unrest and questioning, at a time when the long-standing sovereignty of kings as ordained by God was being questioned. Locke did not see the power of kings as derived from the will of God but rather as developing as the result of some social condition. The paper shows that Locke asked first what state man would be in if there were no government and he found that human beings originated in the state of nature, the state that existed before human beings came together to form a society and a government. It shows that Locke saw this state of nature as placing the individual into a state of perfect freedom, with no necessity to ask any other person before determining his or her own actions or disposing of their own property. Property was an essential element in Locke's thinking, with the relationship of the individual to his property as being of paramount importance. The paper shows that the ownership of property was seen as a fundamental right, meaning that it was a right born in the state of nature. For Locke, the defense of individual liberty is inseparable from the defense of private property.
From the Paper "The individual in society does not have absolute freedom, showing that something has been lost from the state of nature. Locke sees human beings as having agreed to give up certain rights and powers through some form of agreement. Society is thus formed when men cede certain powers to a central authority. Private property rights are to be protected by this state that has been created--human beings have given up certain rights in order to assure the protection of their property from the depredations of others. Locke traces the concept of private property from the time when God gave the world to Adam and his posterity. Locke sees political power as being "for the regulating and preserving of property" (Locke 4), among other things."
Abstract This paper provides an overview of Book IV of ancient Greek philosopher, Plato's "Republic". The paper shows how Plato selects the virtues of temperance, justice and wisdom as pillars of his ideal state. If a state can survive with these virtues, then its citizens require the same, since it is the citizen, so Plato argues, who entrusts the leaders of his state to represent him fairly.
From the Paper "Within the books of The Republic, Plato defines three main functions of society -- production, defense, and government. So, he explains, there are three classes of citizens: the producers, the fighters, and the governors. We cannot forget that even in Plato's vision of an ideal Republic, there is no such thing as a class-less society. We cannot compare his vision of a just man with that of a good citizen without understanding on which level of society he lives. Each class, therefore, will have its own kind of virtue: temperance (obedience) in the producers, courage in the fighters, and wisdom in the governors. There is a fourth virtue, as Plato sees it."
Abstract This paper briefly looks at the characteristics attributed to Socrates by Plato. It shows how Socrates is charged with being evil, corrupting the youth and generally being a bad influence on the society. He is then given a chance to respond to these allegations.
From the Paper "In Plato's Apology, Socrates is charged as an "evil-doer who . . . makes the worse appear the better cause; and he teaches the aforesaid doctrines to others" (65). It is also charged that Socrates "corrupts the youth; and who does not believe in the gods of the state, but has other new divinities of his own" (74). Clearly, then, if true, from the point of view of the state, Socrates is a traitor to the state because if he is successful in his efforts he will cause many people, especially impressionable youth, to question the very authority of the state, which could lead to rebellion against the state. Whether this is what Socrates intends, this is nevertheless the way his prosecutors see his efforts. In fact, considering that Socrates could have easily fled and saved his life, his actions and decisions right up to the moment of his death are testimony to his loyalty to the state and his willingness to obey its laws and abide by its decision in his case."
Abstract This paper examines the use of quality of life measures in health care. Topics covered include: How quality of life is determined, the criteria assessed and who determines the criteria. The political and ethical implications for patient care are also discussed. The paper concludes that despite the ethical concerns and poor quality of measurement related to quality of life indices, they are indeed being used today to make both political and clinical decisions across a wide variety of medical conditions and situations. The paper includes articles referred to in the text.
From the Paper "Several ethical issues are associated with quality of life measures, the first and most important one being whether any decisions should be made using quality of life considerations given the very serious limitations regarding data accuracy. In other words, if clinicians can't trust that they have measured what their instruments purport to measure in an accurate and stable manner, why would they even want to make any decisions using these measures as a foundation? And if they do make decisions on the basis of such measures, the question of whether such decisions are ethical or moral must be raised."
