Abstract This paper introduces the notion of 'self' as presented by David Hume (1711-76) and contrasts it with the model by Descartes (1596-1650). In order to understand Humes' theory of self, his theory of knowledge is explored as well. Descartes's view on the duality of mind and body is then examined. The topic of identity is then explored with Hume's and Descartes' views evaluated within this discussion.
From the Paper "To understand Hume's conception of self, a little delving into his concept of theory of knowledge will be necessary. Hume concluded from his reasoning that no theory of reality is possible. In "Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding" he classifies, after Locke, the objects of awareness into "ideas" and ?impressions.? Ideas are derived from impressions. Impressions are derived form sense perceptions, or from internal consciousness. A word that does not directly stand for an impression has meaning only if it brings before the mind an object that can be gathered from an impression through sense perception or internal consciousness, and thus he dismisses the existence of content beyond the realm of experience.
All objects of awareness are either relations of ideas or matters of fact. Logical relations can be detected between ideas by rationality. Matters of facts cannot be demonstrated, except at the level of mathematics. If a rose is red, it is just a matter of fact; there is no logic within it. It could well have been blue or green. Hume then discusses the following questions regarding causal inference: from what impressions is it derived and what is its nature."
Abstract This paper presents a detailed discussion about the various causes of the rise and fall of empires in ancient times. The writer focuses the discussion on the rise and fall of Rome as well as other ancient civilizations that have been witnessed. The writer explains the importance of understanding the history of these ancient civilizations in order to learn from the mistakes.
From the Paper "Historians have often pondered the rise and fall of ancient civilizations around the world. Heated debates about what factors contributed to their rise and their decline and fall have taken place in many settings. The ancient civilizations have been studied for several reasons. They can point mankind in the direction of what not to do in the future and they can provide mankind with a blueprint for success as long as the mistakes are avoided. The factors that contributed to the rise and fall of ancient civilizations are numerous but the main focus was on politics, and the desire and abuse of power."
Tags: history, roman, civilization, politics, religion, military
Describes the philosophy of Epicurus, which held that a life of pleasure was the highest good. Discusses the strong moral sense that differentiates Epicureanism from Hedonism.
900 words (approx. 3.6 pages), 1 source, 2001, $ 31.95
From the Paper "Epicureanism is a philosophy which emphasizes that freedom from pain in the body and from trouble in the mind should be the goal of a happy life. This was the philosophy taught by the Greek philosopher Epicurus, who lived from 341 to 270 BC. Many people assume that Epicureanism is simply a devotion to pleasure, comfort, and high living with little thought for the consequences, but the truth is more complex. Indeed, this should be seen in the fact that Epicurus was seen in his lifetime and for centuries afterward as a moral reformer, for the ideas he had on how a person should live were based on his understanding of the natural world and on his beliefs about the relationship between body and soul. Epicureanism is an appealing philosophy because of its moral sense combined with its understanding of the need of the human being for a happy life as an overriding goal..."
Abstract Cesare Beccaria was a philosopher from the classical school of criminology during the 18th and 19th centuries. This paper analyzes his theories and shows how Beccaria demanded reform in every aspect of criminal justice. The writer presents the focal point of Beccaria's argument which is that capital punishment must be abolished on the grounds that all punishment should be swift and serve the greatest amount of good for the greatest number of people.
From the Paper "Cesare Beccaria's contribution to the field of criminal justice is but one of his many accomplishments. In addition to criminal justice, Beccaria was well versed in theories of economics as well as politics and he incorporated all of these fields in his various publications. In his treatise On Crimes and Punishments, Beccaria (1764) speaks to a number of issues in the practice of criminal justice and recommends reform. In addition to his prolific writings, Beccaria was a teacher of public law and economy in the Palatine schools in Milan from 1768 to 1770 and after 1771 he held many public offices. Beccaria was a part of the classical school of criminology. This school covered a wide variety of issues and was made up of a group of philosophers on crime and punishment in the 18th and early 19th centuries. Cesare Beccaria was one of the school's most prominent members along with Jeremy Bentham. Both of these men shared the belief that criminal behaviour should be understood and controlled as an outcome of a certain human nature shared by all of us. They felt that human beings were ultimately hedonistic and always acted in terms which suited their own self interest; however at the same time they believed that humans were rational, and therefore acting in their own self interest could be manipulated to serve the good of the community. Based on this, a well ordered state would construct laws and punishments (based on deterrence) in such a way that people would understand peaceful and non-criminal actions to be in their self interest (Crime Theory, 2000). In 1764, when the then unknown Cesare Beccaria wrote his treatise On Crimes and Punishments, it would have been inconceivable for anyone to have believed that the world would still be using his ideas today in the 21st century to guide their criminal justice systems. The treatise has greatly impacted the Constitution of the United States, their Bill of Rights, and justice system. Many of the reforms that Beccaria called for have been incorporated into their system, and his influence stretches over arrest, prosecution and punishment. Beccaria never wrote anything else on criminal justice, which has left many unanswered questions, but the treaties has become the foundation upon which many criminology theories build and expand (Crime Theory, 2000)."
Abstract This paper discusses the many problems with ethical relativisim. The major flaw of the theory, that it fails to recognize that many societies have specific reasons for holding the views it does is examined. The ethical relativist's theory states that an inquiry into the right and wrong must be made through a critical examination of the practices and beliefs of the society and one must look for connections for the underlying universal truths. The author shows why the theory for justifying moral practices and beliefs from an ethical relativist's point of view fails to do so.
From the Paper "It would be only logical to start of any philosophical essay with an explanation of what the paper is to be discussing; in this case, Ethical relativism. The entire process of any Philosophical approach is that of logic. When discussing ethical relativism, there are two rather simple sides to the argument. Although simple, they are none the less extremely important. Ethical relativism is the thesis that ethical principles or judgments are relative to the individual or culture. To many people when stated so vaguely, it is embraced by a large number of people and philosophers alike. However, not only do some Philosophers find this thesis patently false but many people in societies all over the world dismiss this theory as gibberish. Which side if any is correct? Or at bare minimum, partially correct (Timmons, Mark 69)."
From the Paper "The purpose of this essay is to discuss the arguments that St. Thomas Aquinas presents for the existence of God. It will first list his five arguments briefly, then present a brief explanation of three of them. Of these, one will be chosen for discussion in depth. It will be evaluated and discussed in relation to Aristotelian theories and arguments and in relation to other Thomistic theories.
Aquinas's five basic a posteriori arguments for the existence of God (as summarized in Summa Theologica, Part I, Question 2, Article 3) are as follows.
First is the argument from motion, which he attributes to Aristotle, according to which all motion must ultimately be caused by an unmoved mover.
Second is the argument from the nature of an efficient cause, that.."
From the Paper "Justice and the Common Good in
the Political Theory of Cicero
Of the great statesmen/orators in the history of Rome, Marcus Tullius Cicero stands out as one of the more conservative. While he was aware of the changing fortunes and political atmosphere of Rome, he constantly looked to the past and the great ideals of those who had proceeded him in order to flesh out his conception of the ideal state. In the words of Robert Bell, his great oratorical skills were in "the best political tradition of his ancestors, manipulating by appearing not to manipulate, so long as the conservative cause was served" (Cape 274).
Cicero was particularly influenced by Plato's conception of the city-state, having had the goal of "putting Greek speculation into Roman dress for the benefit of his contemporaries" (Wilson, 9). He fervently.."
From the Paper "Aristotle's treatment of politics and rule begins, not with a discussion of elections and public administration but rather with a treatment of property, and not real (land) or personal (movable) property but rather persons as property, or slaves. Slaves are classified, not according as they do physical labor but according as they belong to (hence are subordinate to) part of a fundamental environment of rational human experience, the management of the household. The treatment of slaves as an aspect of household management is crucial because Aristotle conceptualizes the household in the same manner as he conceptualizes the political environment, as the highest and best expression of human rationality.
Human rationality is a naturally occurring, organic structure, and so are its products. For example, Aristotle refers to the.."
From the Paper "Aristotle defined eudaimonia, or happiness, as ?the best possible life.? It may be argued that people today see happiness in much the same way; a challenge arises, however, when one attempts to define what is meant by ?the best possible life.? Our multicultural society's views are difficult to pin down, but it will be proposed in this paper that modern philosophy as a whole embraces an understanding of happiness different from that of Aristotle. The ideas of two influential thinkers of the modern era, Sigmund Freud and Karl Marx, as well as an informal survey of ?pop culture,? will be appealed to as support for this thesis.
Aristotle approached the idea of happiness, or eudaimonia, from the standpoint of ?what is good for man,? in accordance with the meaning of what it is to be ?man.? The discussion of eudaimonia, then, must begin with two definitions: what it is to.."
From the Paper " DETERMINISM VERSUS FREE WILL
Introduction
The purpose of this paper is to examine the philosophical and psychological arguments regarding free will and determinism. The paper begins with an examination of the general philosophical perspectives. This is followed by a discussion of the implications and applications of these differing perspectives to the field of psychology. The final section of the paper presents a brief evaluation of the debate in general and as it relates to psychology in particular.
Philosophical Notions of Determinism and Free Will
As a philosophical doctrine, determinism can be defined as the conceptual proposition that every event, mental and physical, has a cause, and the cause being given, the event invariably.."
From the Paper "The Confessions of St. Augustine is a portrait of the inner world of Augustine of Hippo. The author was the bishop of Hippo in Roman Africa for 35 years, during the time of the decline of Roman civilization on that continent. Augustine is considered one of the important Fathers of the Church in the West, and he helped form Christian theology in the early history of the church. In his Confessions, Augustine shows the depth of his religious belief and writes extensively about his own inner turmoil about such events in his life as the time when he was a child and stole pears from a neighbors tree, a crime that haunted him for the rest of his life. Augustine borrowed heavily from Plato. He agreed with Plato about the status of transcendent Ideas, but he did so in an altered form. Augustine agreed that the Ideas constituted the stable and unchangeable forms of all ..."
Abstract Boethius, in The Consolation of Philosophy, is simply trying to apply his reason to human existence in order to make sense of that existence in a world which seems to champion evil and defy justice and goodness. The author depicts himself as a man torn by the misfortunes of life, finding some relief if not happiness in the pleasures of poetry.
From the Paper "Boethius, in The Consolation of Philosophy, is simply trying to apply his reason to human existence in order to make sense of that existence in a world which seems to champion evil and defy justice and goodness. The author depicts himself as a man torn by the misfortunes of life, finding some relief if not happiness in the pleasures of poetry. Poetry does not help him make sense of his suffering but at least gives him the opportunity to express his pain: "Poetry, which was once the glory of my happy and flourishing youth, is still my comfort in this misery of my old age" (3).
However, immediately, philosophy comes to him in a vision as Lady Philosophy, offering him more than poetry could ever offer, namely the opportunity to make rational sense of the world as a means of transcending his suffering instead of wallowing in it."
Abstract "Justice is a concept we believe we understand even if we have difficulty putting the concept into words. Justice is defined by the relationship that exists between the individual and the state.
From the Paper "Justice is a concept we believe we understand even if we have difficulty putting the concept into words. Justice is defined by the relationship that exists between the individual and the state. Justice means that the state treats every person equally and seeks to resolve disputes on the basis of the facts and compared to objective criteria rather than a subjective determination. Justice in the broadest sense is fairness. Justice cannot assure that every dispute comes out "correctly" or that no mistakes are made, but it should be such as to assure that the process by which decisions are made and goods allocated is fair and produces an acceptable result in the aggregate, even if an individual case justice might fail. Justice occurs when the distribution of political power and economic opportunity is as uniform as possible or when the social and political system is such ..."
Abstract This paper differentiates between critical thinking and creative thinking, explaining the features and uses of each of these modes of thinking. The importance of both creativity and critical thinking is highlighted with the use of examples and famous quotes. It concludes by clarifying the place of creative thinking as an essential supplement to critical thinking, as opposed to a replacement for it.
From the Paper "Creative and critical thinking are often used simultaneously, but they have different meanings. Creative thinking can be described as creating ideas or thoughts. Creative is described as creating or power of creating resulting from originality of thought or imaginative. Critical thinking is evaluating the idea or thought. Both are different, but are important in the lives of people."
Abstract Rene Descartes' method of doubt provides a powerful tool for attempting to determine the fundamental nature of reality. The paper analyzes Meditations I and II, where Descartes uses the Method of Doubt in order to attempt to determine which beliefs and opinions are true. It shows that in order to do this, Descartes proposes a series of skeptical hypotheses, each aimed at determining if we can trust our specific faculties of sense, reason, and imagination. The paper concludes that Descartes method of doubt determines that all that we can truly know is cogito ergo sum (I think, therefore I am).
From the Paper "Descartes notes that examining each belief, and determining if it is true "would be truly an endless labor". As such, he argues that it is necessary to attempt to find a principle that can serve as the fundamental basis, or bedrock, for all his beliefs. Descartes argues that examining each individual belief is unnecessary, as well as laborious, given that an examination of his fundamental belief will reveal if all other beliefs, which rest upon it, are true as well. Says Descartes, "as the removal from below of the foundation necessarily involves the downfall of the whole edifice, I will at once approach the criticism of the principles on which all my former beliefs rested" Descartes, Meditations I)."
