Abstract Members of the peyote religion use a small hallucinogenic cactus, known as a peyote, during a very intricate ceremony to induce visions or gain insight to cure illness, gain knowledge, and seek guidance. The paper begins with a brief history of the religion and proceeds to explain how it was founded and by whom, in which area it was founded and is practiced, and how it spread so quickly. The relationship with Christianity is explained, and a detailed and accurate description of the peyote ceremony is given. The paper also looks at the current state of the religion in the United States.
From the Paper "To some it is as if this 'divine cactus' were actually transporting part of them to another world. In the ceremonies of the Native American Church, peyote is the prime element or sacrament whereby the participants can communicate with God." (Anderson 79) Peyote is a small cactus, also referred to as a button, found mainly in northern Mexico, (Marriott 37) and is a hallucinogenic plant used for divination, curing, meditation, and for the relief of hunger and physical comfort. For members of the Native American Church, "Peyote is sacred and not to be used for curiosity or amusement, nor casually by people who are not members of the church. It is to be taken ritually, in the right place, at the right time, in the right manner, and for a purpose. It is a sacrament." (Aberle 18) Members of the peyote religion take peyote during a very intricate ceremony to induce visions or gain insight to cure illness, gain knowledge and seek guidance (193-194)."
Abstract Peyotism and North American Indian religion are intimately interlinked and extend over a vast expanse of recorded and unrecorded history. The use of peyote as an essential element of North American religion is evidenced in many archaeological and historical findings. However, the ancient religions of the North American Indian culture were disrupted and, in some instances, destroyed by the incursion of other cultures into into the area. The paper discusses the changes caused by the migration of settlers into the New World, although the central focus of this paper is an integrated view of the origins and importance of Peyotism in North American Indian culture and traditions.
From the Paper "A very important personage in understanding these cultures, and the significance of Peyote, is the Shaman or spiritual practitioner, who stands in rough equivalence to the Western idea of the Priest. The Shaman is the central figure responsible for maintaining a balance between the spiritual and the mundane. He, or she, does this through ritual and ceremony. The Shaman is also the messenger of the spiritual world as well as the healer. He is the explorer of the spiritual dimensions that infuse our world. It should also be remembered in this context that the spiritual and ordinary worlds are seen to be continually co-present in ancient Indian culture."
Abstract This paper discusses the concept and historical social role of two-spirited individuals in Native American cultures and explores the relationship of the Cherokee social structure and gender roles with respect to the various dimensions of the two-spirit concept.
From the Paper "Perhaps the most important practical aspect of traditional Cherokee gender roles is the division of labor, while the most important social aspect is that of matrilineage. Women produced all the major household necessities, such as pottery, baskets, and many other crafts, and supplied their household with firewood and water. They were generally responsible for planting, tending and harvesting crops as well as gathering wild edible plants, and of course, the bearing and nurturing of children. Men, on the other hand, produced hunting and fishing tools as well as weapons and canoes, all of which they used to perform their traditional gender-designated labor activities including the hunting game and warfare."
Abstract The purpose of this paper is to introduce, discuss, and analyze the book, "Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee: An Indian History of the American West," by Dee Brown. Specifically, it evaluates and synthesizes the strengths of Native Americans in the face of adversity. It looks at how the book illustrates just a bit of what the Native Americans had to endure as whites took over their lands and their lives; it is a testament to their strengths, character, and pain.
From the Paper ""Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee" is a complex and complete history of Native Americans from their own point of view, rather than the point of view of white historians. Author Brown's style of writing engrosses the reader but sometimes can be a bit overwhelming, and the length of the book (over 500 pages) may put some readers off. However, Brown includes more than just history in his narrative, he includes Native American writings, folklore, and myths that help make the book more interesting and more appropriate as a history. Throughout the book, he illustrates how the Native American tribes were thriving and vital societies that lived off the land and understood the complex natural world and man's interaction with it."
Abstract This paper describes the history, background and lifestyle of the Cheyenne Indians, their decimation by the American army, their relocation onto Indian reservations and their gradual revival after only 100 survivors remained.
From the Paper "Originally farmers, hunters, and gatherers in the land that is now central Minnesota, however, during the late 17th century, the Cheyenne were driven out of the area by the Sioux and Ojibwa tribes. Gradually they migrated westward and settled in the area that is now North Dakota, but were forced to move south when the Ojibwa destroyed their settlement in 1770. When the Cheyenne reached the Black Hills of South Dakota, they changed from farming and hunting and living in permanent villages to a nomadic life following the Buffalo herds. When the horse was introduced to this part of the country around 1750, the Cheyenne became one of the major tribes of the Western Plains and by 1830, they had divided into two main groups, the Northern Cheyenne and the Southern Cheyenne. The Northern band lived along the North Platte, Powder, and Yellowstone rivers in present-day South Dakota and Wyoming, and ranged into Montana and Nebraska, while the Southern band lived along the upper Arkansas River in what is now Colorado and Kansas, ranging into neighboring states."
Abstract This paper explores the beginnings, history, culture, language and religions of Native Americans. The paper explains that they are believed to have come to the Western Hemisphere from Asia via the Bering Strait or along the North Pacific coast. The paper also describes the many different types of languages of the Native Americans, their living conditions in the 20th century and some of the Native Indian religious beliefs.
From the Paper "The main language family of the Northwest Coast were the Nadene in the north and the Wakashan, a subdivision of the Algonquian-Wakashan linguistic stock, and the Tsimshian, a subdivision of the Penutian linguistic stock in the central area (Natives Pp). They had a highly stratified society with chiefs, nobles, commoners, and slaves, and are famed for their artwork of ceremonial items such as rattles and masks, weaving and basketry (Natives Pp). Moreover, they had woven robes, furs, basket hats, wooden armor and helmets for battle, and their culture included cannibalistic rituals (Natives Pp)."
Abstract This paper discusses the history of the Native Americans including warfare and the major federal policies that made them change their ways of life dramatically. It also talks about how the Native Americans influence the United States today.
From the Paper "In 1953 the Termination Act of 1953 was initiated. It was originated to aid the Native Americans but ended up causing more harm then good. This ended the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) and all of the programs that went with it. It divided tribal property among its members, which subjected them to taxation. It also put an end to tribal government and relocated many Indians to the cities where jobs were available. The Termination policy also ended federal responsibility and social services - education, health and welfare, to the Indians. Many Americans were happy about this because it lowered taxes. The effect this had on tribes was disastrous because it caused huge economic problems."
Abstract In "Changes in the Land: Indians, Colonists, and the Ecology of New England", Walter Cronon uses his historical and ecological expertise to cover the changes in New England's plant and animal communities taking place from the transformation from Indian to European life. It explains that the book shows how the interaction among the Indians, Europeans and the land transformed the New England forever.
From the Paper "Cronon concludes on a bleak note. By 1800, New England was far different than the land the earliest European visitors had described. The Indians were reduced to a small fraction of their former numbers and forced on to less and less usable agricultural lands. Large areas in southern New England were now devoid of animals that previously were common, such as beaver, deer, bear, turkey and wolf. Instead, hordes of European grazing animals placed a heavy burden on the plants and soils. Hundreds of miles of fences, weeds and alien grasses crisscrossed the landscape. Forests still exceeded the cleared land, but, especially near settled areas, remaining forests were significantly altered by grazing, burning, and cutting (159)."
Abstract This paper goes into great detail about Native American struggles: How the Europeans stole their land and how the government has been trying to assimilate them into mainstream society. It discusses many battles between the Natives and Europeans, as well as the many legal acts that have been created against them.
From the Paper "For centuries, Native Americans have dealt with hardships; it seems as though they are singled out. Native Americans have been viewed unjustly since early colonialism. Their land was stolen, given back, and so on. Criticism has plagued their credibility, pursuits, and dreams. Through treaties and warfare they have been forced to assimilate like White Europeans. They try to live soundly, peacefully, with no outside interference, but to no avail. As this paper will demonstrate, through policies, treaties, assimilation acts, and warfare, Native Americans have been ill-treated."
Abstract This paper explains that Louise Erdrich is a great example of a Native American author who writes about themes and issues that are very close to her heart and uses many subtle techniques such as symbolism and the functions of non-protagonist characters to enhance her literature and to further convey points that she wants to make to her readers. Her poetry is examined in this paper, to point out these literary techniques.
From the Paper ""Dear John Wayne" is an absolutely fascinating poem in which Erdrich uses symbolism and imagery masterfully to enhance the story. Early in the poem, Erdrich utilizes her skill with imagery give the reader an image of Native American men lying on the hood of a car at a drive-in movie theater and watching a giant image of John Wayne, the great cowboy, as he dominates a group of Indians. This is an obvious, yet clever display of symbolism, with John Wayne symbolizing the white American culture. John Wayne's image on the screen is described as being gigantic, and this certainly has relevance other than simply his physical appearance.'"
