Abstract This paper focuses on disease as a catalyst, paying special attention to the role of smallpox in subjugating the Native American nations. The first part is an overview of how various diseases have affected North American Indians from the arrival of the first Europeans in the 1500s to the Spanish missionaries who first came to Mexico and California in the 18th century. The body of the paper focuses on the use of disease, particularly smallpox, as a biological weapon against the Native Americans during the Seven Year's War. Finally, the paper assesses the short-term and long-term effects that disease has had on both the Old and the New Worlds, which include the decimation of the Native American population as a whole.
Outline
The Columbian Exchange
Smallpox and Warfare
Effects of Smallpox on Native American Populations
Conclusion
From the Paper "The most immediate effect of the Columbian exchange, however, was seen in the massive decline of the Native American population. The European explorers were unwitting carriers of diseases such as smallpox and cholera, illnesses which were unknown in the New World. Because they lacked natural resistance, Native Americans quickly succumbed to the disease. They also transmitted the virus to other populations. In South America and the Caribbean, an estimated 8 to 20 million people died, many without even encountering a white man."
Abstract Discusses the role of treaties in implementing American Indian policy, their nature and purpose, and why the USG breached most of these treaties. Provides an overview and considers treaties, Policy of Separation, and the Supreme Court.
From the Paper "This research paper discusses the reasons why the United States Government (USG) entered into treaties with various Native American Indian tribes and ultimately breached most, if not all, of those treaties."
Abstract Describes shamans as holy men with ties to the spirit world and as masters of the trance-journey technique. Examines various North American Indian tribes that believe in shamans, how certain people attain that position, and the role of shamans.
From the Paper "A Shaman is the name given by anthropologists to holy men who appear to have a closer tie to the spirit world than others, and who have become endowed with exceptional powers to deal with the supernatural (Zimmerman and Molyneaux, 1996). The word "shaman..."
Abstract This paper explores and negates many of the myths associated with the Spanish conquest of America. The paper points out that the allegations of Cortez's military genius and technological superiority over the Native Americans are unfounded, and, contrary to popular legend, the actual conquest of the native Indians was a long and arduous process and not a rapid and simple achievement; the concept of Spanish superiority over native Indians directly challenges what is known to be true about the native Indians' advanced and sophisticated societies.
From the Paper "The suggestion that the Conquest was achieved rapidly by defeating the native Indian armies with a small group of Spaniards acting alone is also a myth. Such tales of the Conquest, according to the Spaniards, completely disguises the incomplete nature of this event and throws a dark shadow over the roles played by the Native Indians and the free and enslaved West Africans. It is also a myth and a widespread misconception that the Conquest reduced the Native Indians of the "New World" to the point of extinction. In truth, these peoples, via diverse and profound means, displayed enormous resilience, adaptability, and vitality and even turned the impact of the Conquest into opportunity instead of disaster."
Abstract This paper examines how, out of the three Chinese religions of Taoism, Buddhism, and Confucianism, the one religion that most closely relates to the Native American religions is unquestionably Taoism. It looks at how Taoism, sometimes referred to as ?Naturism?, involves observations of and attitudes toward the world of nature similar to the mannerisms and philosophical beliefs of most Native American religious ideology. It discusses how Taoism is also very involved with the Cosmos and Heaven and the manner in which it can be related to the world of nature. It also shows how Native American religious beliefs and Taoism are quite analogous when dealing with the ways in which they are polytheistic and several other religious aspects.
From the Paper "Native Americans also believe they should be directed by nature, but for a different reason. A "Vision Quest" is often completed by Native Americans who want to attain a special ability. Usually, a young person on a vision quest lives without food, sometimes without water, and with little possessions. This is done to make the person appear materially poor and spiritually humble before the spirits. This is very similar to the Taoist idea that when an infant comes into the world, it knows no craft and has no ambitions to live yet is cared for, fed, and clothed (Hopfe & Woodward 178). In much the same way, the Native Americans believe that the spirits of nature will assist them, guide them, feed them, and protect them in their journey through earthly existence."
Abstract This paper compares the Yoruba people of West Africa and the Native American Pawnee tribe of the North American plains. It explains how both have traditional institutionalized systems grounded in beliefs, values, worship, and practices that can be classified as religions. Similarly, both peoples do not separate their religious conviction from what they habitually do in life. It shows how their creed affects every aspect of the way they live, either consciously or subconsciously. Religion is the prime factor that controls the fashion in which these cultures manage and sustain their societies with food, clothing, and shelter.
From the Paper "The label Yoruba represents a collection of individual peoples loosely related by language, history, and religion in West Africa. The Yoruba people claim shared ancestry in Oduduwa and they developed the concept of ebi (meaning kinship) as a symbol of unity. According to Yoruba belief, the High God, Olodumare, dispatched Oduduwa from heaven to create the earth and humanity. Oduduwa descended with his delegates and arrived at Ile-Ife in northwest Africa where he completed his task. The Yoruba are, and have been for ages, typically a city-dwelling population. They farm and trade and work in business, and are an interesting society that has a combination of traditional and modern customs. The Yoruba people have an interlocking concept of religion and nature that remains with them wherever they live."
Abstract This paper examines how the history of the Native American is fraught with attempts to assimilate and with acts of dispossession and how the indigenous culture is multi-faceted. It looks at how Melissa Meyer, in her book, "The White Earth Tragedy", argues that Minnesota's White Earth Reservation of the Anishinaabe, or Chippewa, could have been an experimental showcase for assimilation, how the Dawes Act went awry, and how the Anishinaabe were dispossessed of their land and its resources.
From the Paper "The Anishinaabe people were originally composed of a number of bands whose migratory habits brought them into contact with one another only on occasion. The introduction of settlers or Euroamericans (mainly French) into the area brought yet another element into their society. By the end of the nineteenth century there existed two major factions among the Chippewa of Minnesota: those of mixed blood and full blood conservatives. The Metis or mixed blood members of the tribe were interested in following the course set down by the government. They advocated assimilation and the inclusion of Western marketing. The conservatives, on the other hand, thought to preserve the integrity of the "old ways" by following the cultural agenda of tradition."
Abstract Particularly in the years immediately prior to the War of Independence, the Native people of the Americas had more political power and leverage with European settlers and the colonists than they were ever to have in subsequent years. The paper shows, however, that after America formally became a nation with a European-style government, the Indian nations and intertribal struggles were in conflict with the new government. The paper briefly examines the events, reasons, and causes leading to the removal of the Indians from the East and the Indian Removal Act.
From the Paper "The history of racism is rife with euphemisms. "Removal" became a polite legal euphemism for what is now called "The Trail of Tears" of the Cherokee People and the other five native tribes whom were legally and systematically denied their rights to the land their people had occupied for as long as memory, by an act of the United States Congress. The Twenty-First Congress of the United States of America passed the Indian Removal Act of 1830 on May 26, 1830. It should be noted that the act's passage did not come easily, and only transpired after four months of strong debate."
Abstract This paper examines the role that African slaves and enslaved Native Americans played in the rise of both Brazil and Cuba as major agricultural producers. It gives historical background, beginning with the importation of African slaves until the abolition of slavery, and briefly examines the after-effects and the racism that persisted. It shows how, although colonized by the Spanish and Portuguese, Latin America was truly built on the backs of African and Native American slaves and how, after years of rebellion and bitter struggle, these peoples finally gained their emancipation.
From the Paper "The anti-slavery movement gained momentum in Latin America with the end of the Paraguayan War in 1870. Dom Pedro, head of the Brazilian monarchy was placed in a difficult position. Though personally opposed to the institution, he recognized that the stability of the monarchy and his own power relied heavily on Brazil's existing social structure. The end of slavery would, therefore, would almost certainly bring about the end of the monarchy (Keen, Haynes p. 236)."
Abstract This paper discusses different cultural and traditional aspects of four periods of the Hohokam history known as the pioneer, colonial, sedentary, and classic periods. The paper explores the architecture of these cultures, their art, the agricultural, hunting and gathering aspects, their clothing and pottery aspects, as well as their ceremonial and religious practices.
From the Paper "The name Hohokam is synonymous with "the ancients" (Kroeber, 1962). The tribe were neighbors to the Anasazi, somewhat similar to Pueblo cultures (Kroeber, 1962), and though to have migrated from various regions in Mexico to Arizona and the surrounding area (Gregoris, 1997). Many often compare the Hohokam with the Anasazi, who built very similar dwellings and lived similar lifestyles. The Hohokam distinguish themselves somewhat however by building largely segregated dwellings on posts and reeds, with habitats typically more arid in nature requiring the digging of irrigated canals and ditches (Kroeber, 1962)."
