Abstract This paper explores and negates many of the myths associated with the Spanish conquest of America. The paper points out that the allegations of Cortez's military genius and technological superiority over the Native Americans are unfounded, and, contrary to popular legend, the actual conquest of the native Indians was a long and arduous process and not a rapid and simple achievement; the concept of Spanish superiority over native Indians directly challenges what is known to be true about the native Indians' advanced and sophisticated societies.
From the Paper "The suggestion that the Conquest was achieved rapidly by defeating the native Indian armies with a small group of Spaniards acting alone is also a myth. Such tales of the Conquest, according to the Spaniards, completely disguises the incomplete nature of this event and throws a dark shadow over the roles played by the Native Indians and the free and enslaved West Africans. It is also a myth and a widespread misconception that the Conquest reduced the Native Indians of the "New World" to the point of extinction. In truth, these peoples, via diverse and profound means, displayed enormous resilience, adaptability, and vitality and even turned the impact of the Conquest into opportunity instead of disaster."
Abstract This paper examines how, out of the three Chinese religions of Taoism, Buddhism, and Confucianism, the one religion that most closely relates to the Native American religions is unquestionably Taoism. It looks at how Taoism, sometimes referred to as "Naturism", involves observations of and attitudes toward the world of nature similar to the mannerisms and philosophical beliefs of most Native American religious ideology. It discusses how Taoism is also very involved with the Cosmos and Heaven and the manner in which it can be related to the world of nature. It also shows how Native American religious beliefs and Taoism are quite analogous when dealing with the ways in which they are polytheistic and several other religious aspects.
From the Paper "Native Americans also believe they should be directed by nature, but for a different reason. A "Vision Quest" is often completed by Native Americans who want to attain a special ability. Usually, a young person on a vision quest lives without food, sometimes without water, and with little possessions. This is done to make the person appear materially poor and spiritually humble before the spirits. This is very similar to the Taoist idea that when an infant comes into the world, it knows no craft and has no ambitions to live yet is cared for, fed, and clothed (Hopfe & Woodward 178). In much the same way, the Native Americans believe that the spirits of nature will assist them, guide them, feed them, and protect them in their journey through earthly existence."
Abstract This paper compares the Yoruba people of West Africa and the Native American Pawnee tribe of the North American plains. It explains how both have traditional institutionalized systems grounded in beliefs, values, worship, and practices that can be classified as religions. Similarly, both peoples do not separate their religious conviction from what they habitually do in life. It shows how their creed affects every aspect of the way they live, either consciously or subconsciously. Religion is the prime factor that controls the fashion in which these cultures manage and sustain their societies with food, clothing, and shelter.
From the Paper "The label Yoruba represents a collection of individual peoples loosely related by language, history, and religion in West Africa. The Yoruba people claim shared ancestry in Oduduwa and they developed the concept of ebi (meaning kinship) as a symbol of unity. According to Yoruba belief, the High God, Olodumare, dispatched Oduduwa from heaven to create the earth and humanity. Oduduwa descended with his delegates and arrived at Ile-Ife in northwest Africa where he completed his task. The Yoruba are, and have been for ages, typically a city-dwelling population. They farm and trade and work in business, and are an interesting society that has a combination of traditional and modern customs. The Yoruba people have an interlocking concept of religion and nature that remains with them wherever they live."
Abstract This paper examines how the history of the Native American is fraught with attempts to assimilate and with acts of dispossession and how the indigenous culture is multi-faceted. It looks at how Melissa Meyer, in her book, "The White Earth Tragedy", argues that Minnesota's White Earth Reservation of the Anishinaabe, or Chippewa, could have been an experimental showcase for assimilation, how the Dawes Act went awry, and how the Anishinaabe were dispossessed of their land and its resources.
From the Paper "The Anishinaabe people were originally composed of a number of bands whose migratory habits brought them into contact with one another only on occasion. The introduction of settlers or Euroamericans (mainly French) into the area brought yet another element into their society. By the end of the nineteenth century there existed two major factions among the Chippewa of Minnesota: those of mixed blood and full blood conservatives. The Metis or mixed blood members of the tribe were interested in following the course set down by the government. They advocated assimilation and the inclusion of Western marketing. The conservatives, on the other hand, thought to preserve the integrity of the "old ways" by following the cultural agenda of tradition."
Abstract Particularly in the years immediately prior to the War of Independence, the Native people of the Americas had more political power and leverage with European settlers and the colonists than they were ever to have in subsequent years. The paper shows, however, that after America formally became a nation with a European-style government, the Indian nations and intertribal struggles were in conflict with the new government. The paper briefly examines the events, reasons, and causes leading to the removal of the Indians from the East and the Indian Removal Act.
From the Paper "The history of racism is rife with euphemisms. "Removal" became a polite legal euphemism for what is now called "The Trail of Tears" of the Cherokee People and the other five native tribes whom were legally and systematically denied their rights to the land their people had occupied for as long as memory, by an act of the United States Congress. The Twenty-First Congress of the United States of America passed the Indian Removal Act of 1830 on May 26, 1830. It should be noted that the act's passage did not come easily, and only transpired after four months of strong debate."
Abstract This paper examines the role that African slaves and enslaved Native Americans played in the rise of both Brazil and Cuba as major agricultural producers. It gives historical background, beginning with the importation of African slaves until the abolition of slavery, and briefly examines the after-effects and the racism that persisted. It shows how, although colonized by the Spanish and Portuguese, Latin America was truly built on the backs of African and Native American slaves and how, after years of rebellion and bitter struggle, these peoples finally gained their emancipation.
From the Paper "The anti-slavery movement gained momentum in Latin America with the end of the Paraguayan War in 1870. Dom Pedro, head of the Brazilian monarchy was placed in a difficult position. Though personally opposed to the institution, he recognized that the stability of the monarchy and his own power relied heavily on Brazil's existing social structure. The end of slavery would, therefore, would almost certainly bring about the end of the monarchy (Keen, Haynes p. 236)."
Abstract This paper discusses different cultural and traditional aspects of four periods of the Hohokam history known as the pioneer, colonial, sedentary, and classic periods. The paper explores the architecture of these cultures, their art, the agricultural, hunting and gathering aspects, their clothing and pottery aspects, as well as their ceremonial and religious practices.
From the Paper "The name Hohokam is synonymous with "the ancients" (Kroeber, 1962). The tribe were neighbors to the Anasazi, somewhat similar to Pueblo cultures (Kroeber, 1962), and though to have migrated from various regions in Mexico to Arizona and the surrounding area (Gregoris, 1997). Many often compare the Hohokam with the Anasazi, who built very similar dwellings and lived similar lifestyles. The Hohokam distinguish themselves somewhat however by building largely segregated dwellings on posts and reeds, with habitats typically more arid in nature requiring the digging of irrigated canals and ditches (Kroeber, 1962)."
Abstract This paper explains that Native American tribes lost sovereignty over their lands, which were considered sacred to them, because the colonists and, later, the U.S. wanted the valuable resources on the land and needed the space for their own populous growth. The author explains that the constant uphill battle to gain independence has led to many Native Americans feeling abandoned by the government as they try to improve their reservations and preserve their history and ancestors? way of life. The paper relates that there are very few present day "heroes" for a young Native American growing up in a poverty-stricken area of a struggling reservation.
From the Paper "Native American communities not only struggle with high levels of unemployment and poverty, but are also affected by alcoholism, depression, obesity, and other health and mental health related issues that far exceed any other minority in the United States. This is startling to imagine that a whole community of people is affected by such difficulties, solely because they are unable to gain their own independence. Some may argue that there are other factors that contribute to these facts, but it is a vicious circle, enabled by a system of government that is more interested in their own economic gains and livelihood."
Abstract This paper explains that Lewis and Clark managed to adhere to their objectives for the expedition handed out by Jefferson, including proclaiming American sovereignty in the West, advancing American trade, and promoting peace between Indian tribes, while attempting to establish a peaceful and profitable relationship with the Native American tribes. The author points out that, during their expedition, Lewis and Clark encountered nearly 50 Native American tribes, each with distinct and often characteristic responses to the white presence; some tribes provided the expedition with a great deal of assistance, others hindering the expedition. The paper relates that the expedition's plans to bring peace between the Indian tribes meant that the Americans would provide guns to the Nez Perces and the Shoshones; the Blackfoot opposed this plan, fearing that it would hurt their power in the region; therefore. the Blackfoot warriors tried to steal the expedition's guns.
From the Paper "Promoting peace between the Native American tribes was a complex process for which Lewis and Clark were little prepared. The Lewis and Clark expedition came upon the American Natives long after complex and lengthy histories of intertribal warfare had developed, making any intervention by the expedition temporary at best, and futile, at worst. The intricate trade network systems among the native tribes played an enormous role in the relative successes and failures of Lewis and Clark's inroads into Native American culture. Lewis and Clark knew little of the complexities of trade among the tribes, including the demanding and complex trade alliances between the Assiniboine and Manda/Hidata, and the trade between the Arikara and Teon Sioux."
Abstract This paper describes some of the accomplishments of Father Eusebio Kino, his influence on a great many individuals in the Western portion of the United States, and provides an historical account of his life and career.
Introduction
Life Before the Priesthood
Life Range
His Life's Work
From the Paper "Father Kino's family name was originally Chini but he adopted Kino after college. Kino was a scholar first. His education consisted of several universities including Trent and later Hall near Innsbruck. His educational pursuits also took him to several excellent Universities such as Landsberg, Ingolstadt, Innsbruck, Munich and Oehingen. He had already distinguished himself in several fields of study including mathematics, cartography, and astronomy in Germany. He was a distinguished mathematician and also observed the comet of 1680?81 at C?diz, where he published his discovery in his "Exposici"n astron?mica de el [sic] cometa.? He also taught mathematics for a short while at the University of Ingolstadt. As is the case with many European citizens, he was gifted in multiple languages including Italian, Spanish Swiss, German and French. This ability to speak multiple languages helped him later acquire the local American Indian languages and dialects."
Abstract This paper provides a brief history of the Pacific Northwest and the clashes of nations and cultures that dominated the history of the region in the 1800s. These clashes were mainly between American settlers and the Native American tribes who already lived in the area. It looks at the attempts of the settlers to change and dominate the native population and various treaties that were signed.
From the Paper "During and after the so-called ?Great Migration of 1843? which included settlers from all over the United States, it became abundantly clear to the native Indians of the Pacific Northwest that what is now Oregon and Washington State were destined to become strongholds of American culture and society. According to Secretary of State John Calhoun, more than one thousand Americans had relocated to Oregon by 1843 and that twice this number would arrive in 1844 (Fuller, 258); Calhoun also stated "the migration forces which had driven the tide of population in earlier days would drive it on with increasing power across the Rockies to the banks of the Columbia River which was destined to be peopled by us" (Fuller, 259). Thus, this migration of settlers proved to be a turning point in the history of the Pacific Northwest and was even eclipsed in 1845 when more than three thousand "immigrants" poured into Oregon which effectively doubled the white population. With this event, it is comparatively easy to understand how the native Indians of Oregon and Washington were affected, for the white settlers had obviously "expected certain American cultural traditions to be carried over to the Pacific Northwest" (Tisdale, 298), such as commerce, religion and other societal traits. In the end, the Pacific Northwest became part of the true American landscape and, like in so many other regions of the country, the native Indians were either "assimilated" or outright destroyed."
Tags: migration, settler, native, american, indian
Abstract This paper discusses the Native American's struggles with mainstream American life along with the hardships brought on by the new cultural dilemmas.
From the Paper "In modern day American life there are several unique cultures that co-exist within the United States boundaries. These unique cultures are all captured within the term American, but unlike the term American symbolizes, we are all not the same. Each culture shares within itself some history of its beginnings. These beginnings are what make it out to be different."
Abstract "Shell Shaker" is one book that can be read from different angles because the novel is essentially a skillful interplay of various themes. These themes offer a wide range of viewpoints on misuse of power, corruption that is integral part of power itself, women who transcend traditional roles to change the destiny of a nation, and history's influence on the present. This paper looks at how the novel narrates two separate events at different points in time and simultaneously offers an insight into the power of people who react to horrific events to introduce change and to stop corruption. The paper shows that, among these people, it is the female population that is shown to have the greatest resilience and strength to transform an entire nation and its destiny.
From the Paper "Shell Shaker can therefore be read as the story of powerful women who managed to influence events, thereby creating and shaping history. It is story of sacrifices made by some women to bring peace and prosperity in the lives of other people of their tribe. These women were undoubtedly powerful because they understood the real meaning of serving the community and the nation. Readers unfamiliar with Indian traditions might not like the idea of self-sacrifice, however these women are certainly worthy of a rich tribute as they bartered their lives for peace and tranquility."
Tags: Shakbatina, Choctaw, Red, Shoes, Old, Durant
Abstract Examines the differing lifestyles of settlers in Chesapeake colonies and New England colonies. The paper explains how the English settlers in Virginia did not get along with the Native Americans as well as settlers in New England. It also discusses the fact that religion was a motivating force in settling the New England area, as opposed to the Chesapeake region.
From the Paper "Another very different part of life for New England was that they had a better relationship with the Indians than the Chesapeake settlers did. The Pokanokets even signed a treaty with the Pilgrims, "and during the colony's first difficult years the Pokanokets supplied the English with essential foodstuffs" (31). Further, when the Massachusetts Bay Company (MBC) was established in 1629, Congregationalist merchants "boldly decided to transfer the headquarters of the MBC [from England] to New England" (31). This allowed the settlers to handle their own affairs, ?secular and religious, as they pleased.? This dynamic was very different from the forced ties the Virginians had with the English crown."
Examines how Cabeza de Vaca's narrative, "The Relation of Ivar Nunez Cabeza de Vaca", provides rare glimpses of Indian culture and way of life that no longer exist today.
Abstract This paper focuses on how Ivar Nunez Cabeza de Vaca's "The Relation of Ivar Nunez Cabeza de Vaca" has historical significance by providing examples from the text and citing outside sources. This paper shows how important de Vaca's book is as he gives his account of the lives of the Indian tribes in the 1500s. Since these Indians had an oral tradition instead of a written one, information about these tribes, and especially the role of women within these tribes, would not exist today without de Vaca's book.
From the Paper "Unlike many other cultures in that time, women had a voice and held some power in their society, making them more equal in power with men than in other cultures. Many traders were women as "women of several native groups"performed roles as traders, guides, and peacemakers? (Wade 339). Essentially, de Vaca was a man doing women's work, but it showed him moving from one role to another. This knowledge is important because it shows the roles that the women and men had in their culture and "the flexibility of the native social structure of groups classified as gathering and hunting societies" (Wade 339)."
