Abstract This paper examines the criteria for measuring early language development, the concepts associated with ascertaining a child's developmental progress, the research supporting the prevailing theories and the significant findings inherent in credible research in these areas. It discusses how all over the globe young children seem to effortlessly acquire two or more languages at one time, while some uphold the belief that children who are exposed to multiple languages too early may experience developmental language delays and/or confusion. It evaluates how scientific research has attempted to examine whether young bilinguals can ascertain that they are acquiring two separate and distinct languages early on.
Outline
Introduction
Research and Analysis
Bilingual Paradox
Bilingual Deficit Hypothesis
Unitary Language System Hypothesis
Bilingual Advantage Hypothesis
Differentiated Language System Hypothesis
Vocabulary Development
The MacArthur CDI
Linguistic Milestones
Lexical Identifiers
Neutrals
Translation Equivalents
Interlocutor Sensitivity
Language Choice
Codemixing
Parental Discourse Strategies
Early Constraints
Conclusion
Bibliography
From the Paper "The line of thought that resembles popular opinion about whether or not children should be raised bilingual from birth is called the "Bilingual Paradox". It is a paradox because there are conflicting contemporary theories about whether or not it is the preferred method of introducing two languages. While much research shows that, by several measures, children who are exposed to two languages simultaneously between the ages of zero and three achieve major milestones within the same timeframe and with similar results as monolinguals, the contemporary line of thought has been to teach a child one language early on, reserving the introduction of a second language for the later school years. The thinking associated with the latter opinion is that introducing two languages early on will confuse the child, or that the child will be disadvantaged in mastery of one or both languages. There are, however, steps parents can take early on based on proven research to give their child an advantage in learning language skills. Methodologies, tools, timing mechanisms and support strategies have been developed through testing and observation that aids children in successful and timely language development, specifically in the adoption of multiple languages."
Abstract This paper looks at how there is no best way to teach language and how many methods have been adapted and modified throughout the years to find what style best accommodates the need of the learner. It shows that when teaching language, it is imperative that the teacher provides a safe and comfortable learning environment and treats language learning as a social process where comprehensible input is a must when expecting comprehensible output from the students. It explores three methods used to teach language acquisition, the natural approach, communicative language teaching and grammar translation. It outlines each method and includes a discussion of the various techniques utilized for that method. It will also compares while contrasting the three methods and focuses on the various needs of the student.
From the Paper "The linguistic part of human communication is only a part of the total picture that humans use to relay messages to each other. ?At least one applied linguist has gone so far as to claim that, "We communicate so much information non-verbally in conversations that often the verbal aspect of the conversation is negligible" (Rodgers, 2001). Even with all of the body language that is involved with communication, language teaching has chosen to restrict its attention to the linguistic element of human communication, even when the approach is labeled Communicative. The methodological proposal is to provide instructional focus on the non-linguistic aspects of communication, which includes rhythm, speed, pitch, intonation, tone, and hesitation phenomena in speech and gesture, facial expression, posture, and distance in non-verbal messaging. When using the Communicative Language method, the teacher's role is to act as a needs analyst and task designer while the learner is in the roles of improviser and negotiator."
Abstract This paper delves into the heart of the Ebonics debate through reference to Baugh's essay, "A Contentious Global Debut." It focuses on the national and global contention surrounding Ebonics by citing the historical, political and technological influences involved in the development of Standard American English. It looks at how black supporters of Ebonics generally feel that acknowledging Ebonics as a legitimate language or dialect will improve the learning productivity rate of African American students. It also examines how detractors of Ebonics do not feel that Ebonics is a legitimate language or dialect and have consistently attempted to thwart all efforts of legitimizing the language due to its supposed lack of "educational benefits".
From the Paper "Prior to the 1996 Oakland, California school board controversy, few people had ever heard the term Ebonics. Of those who were familiar with the term, very few knew the actual origin and definition of the word. ?Many of the black supporters of Ebonics were aware of the term long before the Oakland school board introduced it into the global lexicon.? In Baugh's ?A Contentious Global Debut,? he discusses the "interpretive diversity" surrounding the educational, political, and economic views on Ebonics when it first became a subject of national concern."
Tags: african, american, dialect, education, english
Abstract This paper is on the topic of ESL students and vocabulary. Often ESL students have limited vocabulary. What is the best computer program to teach vocabulary to ESL students? What methods work best? Studies concerning L2 students show that the best method is using multi-media methods with pictures, texts, and video.
Abstract This paper shows how many researchers identify dyslexia as a specific and significant impairment in reading abilities which is unrelated to other general or particular abilities. The present study is intended to indicate whether reading ability is significantly correlated with laterality, a hemisphere fixation that causes a weakness in the ability to associate a letter and its sound, and perception of the rhythm in sounds as possible causes and core difficulties in pathogenesis of dyslexia.
From the Paper "Dyslexia denotes significant difficulty in language function which affects the learning process in one or more of reading, spelling and writing. Accompanying weaknesses may be identified in areas of spoken language, motor skills, short-term memory, auditory and/or visual perception and sequencing. This disorder is manifested despite conventional instruction, adequate intellectual capacity, socio-economic and/or cultural background and general motivation ("What is Dyslexia"?, 1999)."
Abstract Voiceprint analysis is the technique, method, and interpretation of listening and visualizing one's voice, usually a known person, comparing that information to a voice sample of a suspect or victim involved with a crime, and coming to a conclusion of whether or not that voice does indeed match the known voice and to what degree of certainty does this analysis conclude. Techniques of the human voice can be cataloged onto a two or three-dimensional surface to be compared among suspects. The court has not always allowed this type of analysis because of testing and proficiency differences among expert witnesses.
From the Paper "More than one hundred years ago, Alexander Melville Bell, father to the better-known Alexander Graham Bell, believed that someone could be identified by the sound of his or her voice. This theory was put into practice by creating visual representations of spoken words in graph form. When gathering data from different participants, Bell observed and documented that all the participants, although saying the same word and each word followed a distinct pattern, had slight variations. By 1942, different telephone and voice laboratories were able to create a specific device to map ones voice onto a chart or graph. This device, the sound spectrograph, had the ability to construct a physical record of voice patterns derived from frequency, time, and intensity, by evaluating sound waves. This technology (first actively used during World War II in an attempt to identify and monitor enemy transmissions and communications) was not used in conjunction with the judiciary system for suspect identification purposes until 1962-1963, when first put to use in an FBI lab. The FBI needed a new technique to identify specific voice patterns and although Bell had his methods, there was no set method while the methods used had variable accuracy. Therefore, the FBI commissioned Lawrence Kersta to design a specific method in voiceprint analysis. After two years and 50,000 individual voice samples utilized, he designed and created a technique that had an acclaimed 99.65% accuracy."
Abstract This paper looks at the origins of the word "nigger" and the evolution of the meaning of the word that has taken place over time. The paper points out that, originally, the term had no negative connotations; the negative implications of the word came later. Also discussed is the contemporary meaning of the word and how, when used among the African-American population, it is a term of endearment.
From the Paper "The origin of the word "nigger" comes from the Latin for black, niger. Originally, there was no derogatory intention involved; it was simply a designation of a different color of skin (English, 2003). Unfortunately, it didn't stay "just a word" for long, and it began to be used as a racial slur by people who believed that African-Americans weren't much better than apes. There was a time, not all that long ago, when the word "nigger" was the worst kind of slang. It was demeaning, rude, and offensive, and it was used when people who were not African-American wanted to put down those that were."
Abstract This paper begins with a brief definition of Neuro Linguistic Programming and how it functions as a model of the communication process. The paper goes on to talk about Bandler and Grinder, the developers of NLP, and how their theory is referred to as a human modeling. The methods Bandler and Grinder used in developing their theory and the concepts upon which their theory is based are discussed, as well as NLP's many applications in the field of business, psychology, and science.
From the Paper "Neuro Linguistic Programming or NLP was developed by Richard Bandler and John Grinder, in part as a means to interpret communication styles and patterns between people. NLP involves the study of the manner in which human beings think and experience the world through interpretive physiologic and behavioral patterns. NLP was developed during the 1970's by an information scientist named Richard Bandler and a linguist, John Grinder, Ph.D. The team studied how people influenced and responded to each other during the process of communication (Jacobson, 1998, p. 1). Bandler and Grinders studies involved interpretation and analysis of verbal and non-verbal communication cues that occurred between people while interacting."
Abstract This paper explains that the study of sociolinguistics begins with understanding how the individual conceptualizes and accumulates the knowledge of a language. The author points out that the basic theory is a child attains the knowledge of language through experience with others around them by seeing verbal interaction and then, as part of their maturation process, begins to replicate the behavior. The paper relates that, in his theory of cognitive development, Piaget evaluated language development, an intelligent action, as a function of adapting to one's environment.
From the Paper "In short, the child receives direct and indirect feedback and modeling in order to learn the habits and ability of language. The child first learns individual sounds, and attempts to find commonalities within the sound patterns, and then puts the common sounds together into specific words which obtain meaning through usage. The specific methods by which these abilities are passed along from adult to child are called linguistic theory, and there are a handful of major theories of language acquisition."
Abstract The debate over whether or not English-only policies are justified in the American workplace is sure to continue; however, there is no clear-cut guidelines to determine whether or not a company should have an English-only policy. The best advice to date is to limit the implementation of an English-only policy unless there is a clear business necessity that presents justification for having one. This paper presents an overview of the English-only debate in the United States, including background information and arguments made by proponents and opponents. The paper closes with a set of guidelines for organizations deciding to either maintain or implement English-only policies and recommended alternatives to English-only policies in the American workplace.
From the Paper "English-only is an extremely broad term. For the purposes of this paper English-only policies are the entire spectrum of language policies enforced in the workplace that either promote the usage of English or restrict the usage of non-English languages in some way. In the broader English-only debate there are other terms used to differentiate the specific type of policies enforced. In governmental legislation, an English-only law would be a law allowing ?"only"? English usage and no usage of other languages. On the contrary, an Official English policy or law would make English the official language of use, but not restrict the usage of languages other than English. The fact that many individuals involved in English-only debates are using the same terminology to refer to different types of policies adds to the confusion. It also helps explain why, in the court rulings, it is almost impossible to provide a clear definition of why certain policies are legal and others are illegal (Hoffman, 2001, p. 3). In the United States, neither the constitution nor the federal law codifies English as the nation?'s official language (Santoro, 1999, p. 890). So contrary to belief of many, English is not the official language of the United States. However, twenty-three states have active Official English statutes and others are pending (Crawford, 2002). But even these statutes vary enormously. Some state statutes simply declare English as the official language of the state in sort of a symbolic gesture; much the same way state birds are named (American Civil Liberties Union, 2002). Other states, such as Arizona, which has the, ?"the most restrictively worded official-English law"? (Arington, 1991), take their statutes much more seriously. Some state and local language laws have gone as far as to restrict the governments from providing emergency services such as police lines in non-English languages (American Civil Liberties Union, 2002)."
Abstract This paper discusses the different topics that men and women talk about. It shows the way they use words, phrases, statements, and questions in discussion. The paper then looks at how men and women construct their questions. This paper delves into that topic with multiple authorities illustrating it.
From the Paper "Communication is one of the most evident differences between men and women. There are several differences between how men and women communicate. Some ways that men and women differ is in their topics of discourse, in the way they use vocabulary, in the topics they engage in, and in their filler words, phrases, questions, phonology and style in speech. Since men and women speak so differently from one another, gender influences the way people speak."
Abstract This paper begins by examining the many and varied theories used to explain the causes of stuttering and then follows with an analysis of stuttering and its affect on academic achievement. The paper asserts that this analysis supports the argument that stuttering is primarily a psychologically-caused, linguistic impairment condition and that this knowledge is an important step towards reducing the academic difficulties faced by students who stutter.
From the Paper "The majority of children learn language in what seems to look like an easy and natural process, characterized by different stages of fluency. At each stage of the language acquisition process, the child gains a larger vocabulary and a greater fluency. Because most children pass from one stage to another without difficulty few people, except linguists, psychologists and scientists, have considered the minority of children who do not acquire linguistic fluency, and do not speak in a clear and comprehensible way, although they may have the same language knowledge and vocabulary as do others of their age group. Among the various linguistic problems that a child may suffer from, reducing his ability to use language fluently and to communicate effectively, is stuttering."
Abstract This paper discusses the issue of 'English Only' laws in America. The United States is a pluralistic society. It can be described as 'a melting pot' of languages and cultures. Language is a critical part of every culture and brings with it a strong sense of national linguistics, cultural identity, and individual perception. Language helps to tell who a person is, that person's values and beliefs. The paper contends that unity and disunity can be a result of the use of multiple and solitary languages. The paper explains that the welfare of the public can be greatly affected by language, as seen through the viewpoints of health care professionals and public educators presented in this paper.
Outline
Introduction
Linguistic Nationalism
Pluralistic Society
Language and Maintenance of Identity
Perception and the Role of Language
Single/Multiple Languages - Unity or Disunity
Stakeholders
Viewpoints from Health Care Professionals
Viewpoints from Public Educators
Conclusion
From the Paper "Throughout the history of the United States there have been multiple languages spoken by different cultures. A "melting pot" of cultures (including languages) is what the United States has been known for. This linguistic diversity continues into our present day culture. Language is a critical part of every culture and brings with it a strong sense of national linguistics. A society's identity and perception revolve around their language. Multiple or solitary languages can bring either unity or disunity depending on the situation. In every society, the welfare and needs of the public is strived to be taken care of. When there are multiple languages spoken in a pluralistic society, the lack of communication can be a barrier for the populations needs."
Abstract This essay respectively discusses the various ways that word-formation processes come into a language namely; coinage, borrowing, compounding, blending, clipping, backformation, conversion, acronyms, derivation, prefixes and suffixes, infixes and multiple processes. Furthermore, this essay also discusses the implications of word formation for a language learning and teaching process.
From the Paper "The study of language has become a subject of interest for many years. English for instance, has without a doubt become the global language. Whenever we turn on the news to find out what is happening from four corner of the world, local people are being interviewed and telling us about it in English. To be more specific, English is adopted as an internal lingua franca and second language for most Europeans (Sweden, Denmark, Norway, Dutch, and France) although English is not treated as an official language in these countries. While in most Asian countries, having English is always associated with having a prestigious job and career. However, people do not realize that English has adopted enormous number of words from various countries in the world since the imperialism and trade kicked off. "
Abstract This paper discusses growing diversity in the U.S. and the need to reshape our conception of literacy to include bilingualism. The paper confronts fallacies concerning bilingual education and the need to teach bilingually.
From the Paper "As societies shift and flux with time, it is necessary to alter the guidelines for literacy accordingly. If, as a nation, the United States desires to maintain a proficient level of literacy amongst its population as a whole, then it must be willing to move forward and make the necessary changes. Such changes are clearly taking place now in the United States, in the form of increasing ethnic and lingual diversity. As has been shown, our brains are clearly capable of adapting to such a change. Bilingual education is the next step."
