Abstract This essay evaluates the definitions and problems of the major word classes; nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs and also touches on the minor classes; pronouns, determiners, auxiliaries and conjunctions. It discusses the reasonings and logic behind these parts of speech.
From the Paper "English does have parts of speech for a start. The need for differentiating a similar word in different context for a clearer understanding led to classifying words into word classes, otherwise known as parts of speech. Crystal (1999) defines word class as groups of words that behave in a similar manner syntactically and morphologically. The word order of a sentence in modern English is quite fixed and therefore it is important to know the classification of words before they can be arranged in a sentence. For example, I girl am a would be grammatically anomalous. Changes in the word tenses or aspect can be predicted morphologically if word classification were to be done. In order to be grammatical, he was ill is definitely preferred over he illed or any other variations. In addition, the presence of word class tells us that in a context like he made a killing from killing birds, where killing is used in two different ways differentiated by categorizing the first killing as a noun and the second one as a verb. Clearly, there are more word classes than the two mentioned above in order to facilitate the differentiating words in a sentence. Traditionally, there are eight parts of speech: verbs, nouns, adjectives, adverbs, pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions and interjections (Burridge & Mulder, 1998:148) although the list gets longer periodically. This essay would discuss some problems in defining major word classes like nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs which are of an open class where new lexemes are constantly added, and the minor classes such as pronouns, prepositions, determiners, auxiliaries and conjunctions that are known to be closed classes; new lexemes are rare. However, concepts that are discussed are by no means exhaustive."
Abstract This paper talks about the effects that race, class, and ethnicity have on the development of one's language and speech patterns. It looks at how speech, dialects, intonation, and even vocabulary, change within different regions and how this causes people to make quick judgements regarding anyone speaking with certain accents, vocabulary etc. In particular, the paper focuses on the prejudices associated with a "black-sounding" voice and the consequences of these prejudices.
From the Paper "A very old saying tells us not to judge a book by its cover. Presumably this bit of advice also applies to the way an individual speaks or sounds. Yet, in the same way as we form an opinion of a book simply by glancing at the picture on its cover, so too do we prejudge individuals by the manner in which they speak and express themselves. There is educated speech and upper-crust speech. There is literate speech and ignorant speech. Middle Class, Working Class, and Lower Class Speech. People from different regions or cities pronounce the same language in different ways, and use different accents and intonations. Different races and different ethnic groups within a dialect region have their own distinctive ways of rendering the spoken word. We answer the phone, and in an instant we know where the caller is from, what is his educational background, his socio-economic status, and even?whether his Black, White, Puerto Rican, or Chinese."
Abstract This research paper begins with an introduction to cooperative learning strategy. The author then chose three articles that show how research over the years examine the way cooperative learning in bilingual classrooms benefits limited English proficient students and what activities teachers can integrate in classrooms in order to meet the needs of diverse language learners. The summary of the articles is followed by a discussion, specific examples of the implications for classroom practice, and ways that one can apply theory to practice.
From the Paper "It is a challenge today for educators to meet the needs of culturally and linguistically diverse students. Yet, cooperative learning instructional strategy is found to be one of the most effective ways to promote successful academic achievement, language acquisition, and social development for English language learners. When classroom activities are meaningful, interesting, and relevant, learning is occurring at every level. In successfully organized groups, language minority students will gain proficiency in English, and their native language."
Abstract This paper explains that the three elements of language ? abstractness, grammar, and cultural ramifications ? are not unique to human language, but merely more advanced or merely more evident from our perspective than the language of animals. The author points out that chimps and parrots in laboratory settings seem capable of grasping abstract terms (such as "mad" or "bad" or "blue"), generating new combinations of words to express new ideas, and referring to distant events or objects. The paper relates that animals may be more driven by instinct than by learned behavior, yet they show a propensity, in many cases, to learn language.
From the Paper "Grammar is one of the strictest supposed differences between human and animal languages. Grammar involves the organization of discrete words into complex sentences that have specific required orders and syntaxes. Even human sign language tends to require certain specific syntaxes. While animals appear capable of understanding syntax, there is little evidence that they use it in communication (though it is difficult to prove a negative). According to one influential chimp research, Terrace, "No chimpanzee has learned sign language. They"ve certainly learned some gestures, but sign language is not just a system of gestures. It's a full, grammatical language with its own systematic grammar, like Latin.? The lack of grammar is evident in cases such as that of Koko, one of the stars of the talking-chimp movement."
Abstract This paper tidentifies and analyzes the important contributions made by Noam Chomsky to the field of lingusitics. It looks at important concepts such as generative grammar, I-language and universal grammar. The resistance to the behaviorist approach to understanding language is ultimately linked to his anti-establishment politics.
From the Paper "The idea of universal grammar is a central one to Chomsky's linguistic theory. Inherent to this idea is the concept that human beings are equipped with a distinct language faculty in our minds; this faculty is governed by an innate understanding of universal grammar, "All the minds of human beings include the principles that movement is structure-dependent and that heads are on certain sides of phrases; they are part of the common Universal Grammar. It is not relevant to UG theory that English has a particular set of properties, French another, German another; what matters is what they have in common" (Cook & Newson, 1996, p. 32)."
Abstract In December 1996, the Oakland School Board decided that it was going to accept and recognize Ebonics, or what is known as African-American Vernacular English (AAVE), as a valid dialect and would use it in teaching African-American children. This paper examines the linguistic controversy surrounding this decision, showing the pros of using AAVE in schools across the United States.
From the Paper "AAVE is a fact of life and it is creating a linguistic and cultural disunity in the United States by allowing teachers to stereotype black students and by ensuring that black students do not acquire Standard English fluency. The introduction of AAVE as a tool language of instruction simply means accepting that fact of life and using it to correct current problems facing African Americans in the educational system." Educational psychologists, such as William Labov, have determined that the primary obstacle to academic progress for most African American students is their inability to fully understand what is communicated to them or, in turn, communicate what they are thinking in a dialect that teachers can comprehend (10)."
Abstract This paper discusses the importance of communication between countries and government representatives that is efficient and effective and does not require the the aid of expensive translators. The paper further argues that the only way to achieve this important and essential efficient communication is through the adoption of a universal language, which all the people of the world understand and speak. Finally, the paper contends that such a language should be an artificial language, such as Esperanto, because it is politically neutral and not linked to any specific country, culture, or political ideology; is easier to learn than any other language; and is well-developed enough as a language to fulfill the action of communication for all purposes. A complete outline and an annotated bibliography is included with the paper.
From the Paper "In the era of globalization and increase of interaction between the global population, the importance of an international language increases. The numbers reported by Kep Enderby, the author of "The Problem of Language In International Affairs," and a former government minister and judge, support this argument. Enderby informs readers that the world's 5.2 billion people speak 3,000 different world languages and 7,000 dialects (par. 2). As global cooperation is necessary, thousands of people from across the world attend over 2,000 international conferences a year (par. 26). Since they do not have a common language, at least four different languages are officially used, with translators still needed (Enderby par. 33). People and governments do not have a common language, and this results in misunderstandings, waste of time and waste of money. In the age where all countries are connected and dependant on one another, and where representatives of governments have to meet regularly and often, it is essential that communication between them is efficient and not requiring the aid of expensive translators. The only way to achieve this important and essential efficient communication is through the adoption of a universal language which all the people of the world understand and speak. Furthermore, a universal language will have the practical objective of giving all people, from all countries, a global identity. Most people agree with this idea but disagree on whether this universal language should be a natural language such as English, or an artificial one such as Esperanto. Although many people favor the adopting of English as an international language, believing that it is an obvious choice because it is already a popular and widely spoken second language, that is easy to learn, it is not a good alternative. The best choice for an international language is an artificial one like Esperanto because it is politically neutral, not linked to any specific country, culture or political ideology, is easier to learn than any other language, and is well-developed enough as a language to fulfill the action of communication for all purposes. However, the success of adopting Esperanto as a "lingua humana," like Gardner Ralph White calls it in "Towards the Construction of A Lingua Humana," (113) is greatly dependant upon its introduction into the educational systems of countries as a second language and the chances for its success are poor."
Abstract Prior to 1957, the two most popular ways of analyzing grammar were the methods of prescriptivism and structuralism, or structural grammar. The paper examines how all this changed with the release of Noam Chomsky's "Syntactic Structures" in 1957 in which he introduced a new way to analyze grammar called 'transformational grammar'. The paper discusses how Chomsky publicly destroyed Skinner's theories and argues that Chomsky's ability to explain certain quirks of the English language, such as ambiguity, and the behaviorists' utter lack of a retort, makes it clear that Noam Chomsky deserves his title as a living legend among linguists today.
From the Paper "Chomsky makes clear that the input-output approach is better and different from the approach of the behaviorist, because he points out once again how it can handle certain nuances of the language such as ambiguities. "Whatever a habit-structure is, it's clear that you can't innovate by habit, and the characteristic use of language, both by a speaker and a hearer, is innovation" (103)."
Abstract This paper presents an account of the cultural foundations of linguistics. More specifically, the paper examines how unequal social roles of males and females are both sanctioned and reinforced by the language. The paper also looks at prevailing modes of usage and change.
From the Paper "The individual experience of culture is so much a part of basic consciousness that it may seem beyond analysis in general, let alone linguistic analysis in particular. Yet, there is compelling evidence that language usage is a product of cultural assumptions and norms and that linguistic practice reinforces traditionally engendered social roles as well as relative power relationships that constitute the content of culture. By reference to linguistic and social theory and analysis, including the discourse of the modern feminist social critique, this research examines ways in which unequal..."
Abstract This paper discusses whether English should be the law in the U.S. The paper concludes that English should be recognized as the official and legal language of the United States. The paper also includes policy issues.
From the Paper "Should English Be the Law? America prides itself on being a melting pot, a nation largely composed of immigrants who regardless of how long they or their family may have been in the United States came to this country from some place else."
Abstract The paper explores the importance of language in the post structuralist theory of Lacan. The paper explains Lacan's approach to linguistic constructs and behavior and also includes his view of the self and of human development. The paper incorporates the importance of signifying.
From the Paper "What must be understood above all about Lacan's approach to languages is that it is conceived of as both a symbol or sign of human experience and as a mediating mechanism whereby human beings may indicate other symbols and construct signs that constitute social intercourse of any kind."
Abstract This paper discusses a variety of topics entailed within the study of semantics and explains how each idea contributes to the broad study of semantics. It also shows how the language has developed and how it continues to evolve.
From the Paper "According to encyclopedia.com, semantics is the study of the relationship between words and their meanings. The empirical study of word meanings and sentence meanings in existing languages is a branch of linguistics; the abstract study of meaning in relation to language or symbolic logic systems is a branch of philosophy. Both of these branches of study make up what we call semantics. The field of semantics has three basic concerns: the relations of words to the objects denoted by them, the relations of words to the interpreters of them, and, in symbolic logic, the formal relations of signs to one another. ".
Abstract This paper analyzes the essay "Mother Tongue" by Amy Tan in comparison to the work "If Black English isn't a Language, Then tell me, what is?" by James Baldwin. The paper first summarizes the two essays, and then compares their usage of examples and the tone of each author. The paper concludes that Amy Tan's work is more effective because of the success of these factors.
From the Paper "Amy Tan describes the effects of language as based upon personal experiences, while James Baldwin describes the linguistic heritage of his language upon the society and culture of African Americans. As thus, in some regards, they remain difficult to compare or contrast. However, Amy Tan's effectual use of specific examples and her tone throughout the piece contributes to making her piece, "Mother Tongue," clearer than "If Black English Isn't a Language, Then Tell Me, What is?" by James Baldwin. In "Mother Tongue," Amy Tan describes the effect of language--in all of its atmospheres--on her childhood and the early parts of her career. She conveys the multiple versions of English which she utilizes daily, from the 'simple' English she employs with her mother or Chinese family to the standard, grammatically wrought English of formal writing."
Abstract In recent years Noam Chomsky has become more famous as a political activist and critic of various American governments than he has ever been as a linguist. Be that as it may there was a time when Chomsky was one of the leading linguistic theorists in America and this paper looks at arguably his most important scholarly contribution to that area of inquiry. Specifically this paper explores the strengths and weaknesses of Chomsky's theory of universal grammar, in particular what it reveals and what it does not reveal or rather what it obscures.
Abstract This paper analyzes a dissertation of a conservative scholar, Diane Ravitch, on bilingual education. The paper explores the efficiency of this education method.
From the Paper "Diane Ravitch's position paper, publicized in the Practice of Writing, is taken from her book about education. Ravitch discusses the origins of Bilingual education from the civil rights movement, which inspired racial solidarity, to the Bilingual Education Act of 1968, which endorsed funding for bilingual education. The main theme of Ravitch's paper, however, is her objection to required, mandatory, bilingual education. It is the schools' role, she maintains, to decide how to teach English to non-native English speakers; politicians, Ravitch argues, cannot enforce a pedagogical method on professional educators. While she does not states it explicitly, one also gets the idea that Ravitch opposes bilingual education in any case, as her overall approach towards it is very critical."
