Abstract This paper discusses Christian hermeneutics, explaining that it is an involved process that requires a significant effort on the part of the reader in order to make a correct interpretation of the Biblical text. The paper further explains that one of the most effective ways to interpret Biblical text is through the grammatical historical method. Using this method the reader interprets the text in terms of the grammar of the original language of the Biblical passage and then interprets it using the context of that passage writer.
From the Paper "The Christian Bibles provides the guidelines by which many Christians, if not most Christians attempt to live their lives. Unfortunately, not only was the Bible written close to 2000 years ago, it was also written in at least one other language English. For these reasons, the words of the Bible are often subject to interpretation, or misinterpretation, by many special interest groups whose main purpose is to push their own agenda. The simplest explanation of the term "Christian hermeneutics" refers to the study and interpretation of the Christian Bible. According to Hank Hannegraaf, the purpose of hermeneutics is to provide a guideline and "rules" to anyone who might attempt to interpret the Bible (par. 3)."
This paper discusses the application of Vivian Cook's second language user model to the acquisition of pragmatic competence in the teaching of second languages.
Abstract This paper explains that the theory of multi-competence, developed and advocated by Vivian Cook, states that a human mind is potentially capable of possessing the linguistic competence of more than one language; thus, multilingual speakers are the norm. The author points out that, in terms of language teaching, the model of multi-competence can be applied mainly for an acquisition of sufficient grammatical competence, which apart from general data provision can be achieved through the setting of parameters. The paper relates that, since the primary goal of language teaching is to create successful L2 speakers, the teaching of pragmatic competence in a language should include cultural and inter-cultural studies, cognitive training and general input in that language.
From the Paper "Yet it is important to point out that the way these two grammars co-exist in the same mind also implies its mutual interference and interdependence: at a certain level of acquisition, the two grammars must form a single language system rather than two separated systems. Thus, multi-competent state of mind represents, in fact, not a mere combination of two monolingual systems but rather a single language system, which can be described as an indivisible linguistic unity. This statement can serve as an explanation for the fact that the vast majority of the second language (L2) learners even on the advanced level are not able to produce language in the same way the native speakers do, since the multilingual language users have several interrelated languages in mind: In short the state of mind of a multilingual language user is just different from that of a monolingual."
Abstract The paper discusses the attrition and retention of languages. In the paper, attrition refers to a gradual or marked loss of the understanding ,or the ability to converse and communicate, in a language. The paper examines language retention, which is the way that language is acquired and maintained. The paper further examines the way that this retention is affected by various linguistic, socio-linguistic and psychological factors.
From the Paper "Another theory that is encountered in the literature on second language learning is the Frequency of Use theory. The theory refers to the view that things learn best are most often retained. A study by de Bot, Gommans, and Rossing (1991) of Dutch learners in a French environment found that language attrition was related to the amount of contact that the Dutch learners had with other people who spoke their language in the French environment. "They discovered that the length of time away from the Netherlands would not cause attrition for this generation of immigrants if they had many regular first language contacts."
Abstract The paper illustrates how, ever since its multiple origins in the mouths of many persons and on many national soils, the English language has been changing and evolving in a positive fashion. The paper contends that the changing nature of English vocabulary and grammar should be viewed in a positive fashion, rather than an incorrect use of the English language. The paper shows how the nature of human life is always changing and English must convey the increasingly complex nature of our technical world, as well as the rich ethnic and regional diversity of America today. The paper discusses how English unites business people all over the world although each country speaks a different type of English.
From the Paper ""Now, I do not know what white Americans would sound like if there had never been any black people in the United States, but they would not sound the way they sound," writes James Baldwin in his essay "If Black English isn't language, then tell me what is." (Baldwin, 1979) English is a language of multiple origins, an Indo-European language with Norman, French, Germanic, and Native American words and influences. It is spoken all over the world from the "damp little island" of England, where to "open your mouth in England means you "have confessed your parents, your youth, your school, your salary, your self-esteem, and, alas, your future," in Baldwin's words, to the streets of America where Blacks and other groups that supposedly do not speak standard English are really making a fundamental contribution to the creativity of an ever-changing language."
Abstract This paper examines several factors that determine success in the English-as-a-second-language classroom. The author argues that English is the necessary skill by which immigrants integrate into American society. Additionally, the author cites the linguistic paradox that exists in American society-- on the one hand, it encourages and honors diversity while on the other hand it encourages foreigners to learn English to the exclusion of their mother tongue. The paper concludes by stating language learning must be focused on the individual's learning style and needs whenever possible.
Outline:
Introduction
Definitions and Theories of Culture and Learning
The Significance of Sociocultural Theory
Bibliography
From the Paper "Since its inception, the United States have been a mix of many cultures. At the time of the first colonialists, the country was seen as a place of opportunity and prosperity for any who would make use of the vast resources offered. The immigration trend, despite all evidence to the effect that the opportunities offered are indeed not as vast as believed at first, continues to this day. This has created some difficulty in terms of culture and language, as immigrants attempted to integrate themselves into the United States and its workplace and schools while attempting to retain some of the culture that was their own since birth. In the L2 classroom then, it is vitally important to take into account matters of culture and the influence of this on learning."
Abstract There are a number of problems that a translator might come upon when translating wh- words from Bulgarian into English. This paper looks at "who" and "which" in particular. Why is there a problem? In English, "who" and "which" do not take grammatical markers for gender and number, while in Bulgarian they do . In English and Bulgarian, gender is grammaticalized differently. This particularity is sometimes considered a problem for certain translations from Bulgarian, and more specifically, when gender seems of importance to the Bulgarian text. This paper deals with the notions of grammatical and semantic gender only because the former exists in Bulgarian and the latter is used in English. This paper begins with some preliminary remarks, exposing the differences between Bulgarian and English when it comes to number and gender markings. Some translation examples are discussed in more detail in the section entitled "Examples". It must be pointed out that the paper investigates only one side of the problem, where Bulgarian is the source language and English is the target language. Back translation is not discussed here. The main focus is on how gender itself is produced and translated. Following paragraphs clarify what gender is in both languages and what problems translators might encounter if they choose to transfer a gendered reference from Bulgarian into English.
Table of Contents:
Introduction
Preliminary Remarks on Gender and Number in English and Bulgarian
Who and Which in English
Who and Which in Bulgarian
Examples
Conclusions
Bibliography
From the Paper "In the extra-linguistic world, gender is a physiological phenomenon connected with the structure of some living beings. There are objects with no sex (inanimate) and others with sex (animate). The category of sex has two exponents (male and female). These facts can be reflected in language since gender markings in a given language are, on the first place, categories established through our contact with the natural differences between the sexes and between what we have called "the animate" and "the inanimate". Thus, the linguistic exponent of sex has the following grammatical and/or lexical correspondences in English:
1 M / he male (animate) boy, father, John, etc.
2 F / she female (animate) girl, mother, Mary, etc.
3 N / it O gender (inanimate/undetermined) cat, stone, table, baby (if sex unknown)"
Abstract This paper discusses the vowelization of God's name in the Bible. It begins by discussing punctuation in the Bible, particularly in the Hebrew scriptures. It then compares this use of grammar to other ancient languages. It discusses the evolution of the grammatical system, leading up to the system called 'Masoretic Hebrew' punctuation at the end of the twelfth century. The paper discusses in detail the different grammatical forms of God's name, particularly the Masoretes' vowelization of His name.
From the Paper "When Jesus Christ was on the Earth, spending his Earthly life, he would always appeal to the very words of the Old Testament, and this was taken to be indicative of the fact that Jesus Christ himself approved of this version of the text, and that it had been exactly and accurately transmitted. This Old Testament was the version that was favored and used by the ancient Jews, and it was also considered to be an extremely trustworthy version of what had been originally written by Moses. The Old Testament books as they appear in the Hebrew Bible are actually divided into three distinct groups, and they are: the Law, the Prophets, and the Writings. It was the priests that were given the innate responsibility of preserving the texts, and this was because of the fact that these individuals were considered to be the divinely appointed guardians and the teachers of the Law. (Forever Settled: A Survey of the Documents and the History of the Bible)"
Abstract This study examines how production and perception of English vowels are affected by one's native language, specifically among Mandarin speakers. The paper examines the specific relationship between Mandarin speakers' production and perception of English vowels and their mastery of the English language, including their comprehension of intonation and pitch. The author hypothesizes that Mandarin speakers' would experience more difficulty mastering English vowels if their exposure to the English language encompassed one year or less.
Table of Contents:
Abstract
Introduction
Discussion
Conclusion
From the Paper "Previous studies suggest that multiple factors affect speakers' ability to produce sounds and their perceptions of sound. Various studies including that conducted by Boroditsky (2001) suggest that how one speaks affects many aspects of their livelihood including how one views or perceives the world. Further studies suggest that when compared with native English speakers, Mandarin speakers tend to refer to different concepts in different ways, including describing time in different manners (Boroditsky, 2001). The results of this study are relevant as they suggest that language is a "powerful tool shaping thought" and that one's native language "plays an important role in shaping thoughts and thought processes" (Boroditsky, 20)."
Abstract This paper is an extensive review of the ideas put forward in Lippi-Green's book, "English with an Accent". It begins with a short example of the extent of language discrimination. It continues to discuss why a stereotype of people who speak with an accent exists. It also explores the effects that communicating with "improper" English has on society. The paper explains that language is a flexible tool for denoting social status and social allegiances. The author concludes that language discrimination, although subconscious, should be brought to light and dealt with.
From the Paper " In school clarity of thought is linked to written language, and there is little effort to separate written from spoken. The aim is to make children active members of literacy communities rather than language communities. The silencing of voices considered unworthy or unequal is done by statements (such as, "It is inappropriate for a law student to ask a question in Hawaii'ian Creole English") (Lippi-Green, 1997, p. 107). A child in the classroom may be criticized for using vernacular English instead of Standard. At home the same child may be criticized for using Standard at the dinner table instead of the family's home language. The task for students is to discern when it is appropriate to use one or the other. "
Abstract This paper explains that Julia Kristeva, known for her work in the field of semiotics, focuses on female communication; whereas, Sigmund Freud's communication theory has little to do with communication in terms of language and more to do with actions and reactions. The author points out that Kristeva's communication theories are based on primary process or semiotic chora, which in Freudian terms would be the pre-Oedipal incoherence that must be harnessed to ensure social cohesion. The paper relates that Kristeva's work appears to be an extension of Freud's theories, especially his psychoanalytic theory, which she calls 'semanalysis'. The paper further explains that Kristeva divides communication into the semiotic, which is similar to the Freudian term primary process, and the symbolic, which is similar to the Freudian term secondary process.
From the Paper "The reason why dreams are illogical and out of sequence is because the main regions of the brain are deactivated during the dream sequences. Freud believed that dreams were symbolic and had to be decoded by the brain to reveal the workings of the mind. However, researchers state that the brain is quiet during the dreaming period and it does not decode anything. Whatever is shown in the dream are what it is and not a symbolic representation. Anything shown in the dream is not a fulfillment of a wish as Freud stated."
Tags: unconscious, dreams, signs, contradictions, process
Abstract This paper analyzes the 2006 journal article by J.Kim titled "Paper, Rock, Scissors". According to the paper, Kim's article explains current reactions of South Korea and Japan concerning the ongoing diplomatic dispute over an islet. The paper further discusses how each government holds its own position that conflicts with the other. Kim goes on to use the children's game of paper, rock, scissors to explain this situation. The paper breaks up the article and analyzes it accordingly.
Outline:
Analysis
Title & Sub-title
Readership
The Purpose
Introduction & Conclusion
Structure
Attitude & Position
Ethical Writing
From the Paper "Logical flows: Throughout the article, the readers can easily follow its logical flow. First, the author points out the important issue he will talk about in the article by using a comparison with the game mentioned. It is followed by other terms that are parallel to the game; "rock" hand as "hard power" and "scissors" hand as "soft power." He assumes that the most appropriate solution for South Korea is the combination of these two powers. To apply all these terms to the current situation, the author goes over the reactions of both parties. In addition, taking his own position in the article, he argues that there are some reasons behind the "soft" reaction of Japan, and follows with details of what Japan can get out of its action and what South Korea should be ready for."
Abstract This paper provides an overview of language acquisition among very young people. The paper also discusses steps that can be taken to assist them and what interventions should be avoided. The paper further provides a description of the research design, followed by a discussion of the findings.
Outline:
Abstract
Introduction
Research Design
Discussion of Findings
Conclusion
From the Paper "While these young learners are getting a handle on the elements of speech at a very early age, there are other important factors that may come into play as well. According to Dixon and Smith (2000), there are two fundamental factors that contribute to the acquisition of language in the very young: (a) attentional control, and (b) stability of neutral affect. "Attentional control appears intrinsically crucial," they advise, "not only for its role in permitting children to attend to linguistic input, but also for minimizing distractions while the input is matched to preexisting semantic networks. Children with more finely developed attentional control also may be better able to enter into bouts of mother-child joint attention" (Dixon & Smith, 2000, p. 417). The authors cite a number of studies to date that have determined that the amount of time devoted to joint attention during free play times in early infancy has been positively related to language productivity in later toddlerhood, and add that maternal utterances that were designed to complement an infant's attentional focus were particularly indicative of linguistic productivity at 13 to 15 months (Dixon & Smith, 2000). "
Abstract The paper examines headlines from Associated Press (AP) news and compares them with headlines from the news magazine "Time." The paper highlights the differences between the AP and "Time" headlines and shows how each news organization writes headlines for its intended audience. The paper discusses how headlines may seem like a very small part of a news article or story, but they are the primary way a reader decides whether to read an article or not. The paper concludes that headlines, therefore, are one of the most important parts of any news story.
From the Paper "The first headline comes from Time magazine, and is the headline for a book review regarding a biography of a man named James Holman. The headline reads "Have Cane, Will Travel." Immediately, it draws the reader into the article, posing questions the reader wants answered. 'Why does the person carry a cane, and where do they travel?' might be two of the first questions that pop into the reader's mind. The lead paragraph literally 'leads' the reader on, introducing the book and the person it chronicles, but still not answering the questions the headline generates. It is not until the end of the second paragraph that the reader learns the 'rest of the story' - that Homan was blind, and traveled the world in the 19th century, when travel was much more difficult, especially for a blind man."
Abstract This paper explains that advertising must catch the customer's eye and offer something that he or she is interested enough to read. The author points out that, although most large advertising agencies have been aware for some time of the use of color, text and design especially in print ads, smaller agencies or companies that wish to self-promote their products or services may have more difficulty with these particular issues. The paper describes three print ads, what is right and wrong with them and what should be done to correct the problems through retextualization.
Table of Contents:
Theoretical
General Introduction
Introduction to the Discourse of Advertising
Functions and Structure of Advertising Discourse
Components of the Advertising Discourse
Descriptive
Analysis of Advertisements
Retextualizations of Advertisements
Conclusion
From the Paper "Many employers will take surveys and do other things to try to find out whether customers are satisfied with their company. Advertising agencies also do this, to determine what it is that people need and whether they like a new advertising campaign. After these have been conducted, the more conscientious companies will try to incorporate suggestions from their customers into the way that they do business in order to raise the satisfaction level that these customers feel when they shop with the company, and the more conscientious advertising agencies will try to adjust their advertisements so that they meet with the approval of the company that is buying the advertising and with the customers that will be viewing them."
Tags: satisfaction, text, pictures, standardization, color
Abstract In this article, the writer claims that one may say that Stephen Krashen is an advocate of total immersion teaching to encourage second language learning in and out of the classroom. The writer points out that Krashen's techniques are worth studying because they provide educators with new approaches to teaching a second language in the classroom. Further, the writer notes that his techniques and hypotheses also counter traditional lecture style teaching and encourage educators to adopt more comprehensive practices to help students master a new language. The writer concludes that Krashen's techniques are important to study because they can provide educators with new methods for teaching second languages to students in a helpful and comprehensible environment.
Outline:
Introduction
Acquisition Learning
Monitor
Natural Order
Input
Affective Filter
Summary and Conclusions
From the Paper "This hypothesis is the basis of all other hypothesis presented by Krashen. The acquisition learning hypothesis focuses more on an individual's need to acquire skills in a second language than it focuses on the actual process of learning traditionally involved in a classroom setting. The whole basis of Krashen's concepts in fact, relies on one's ability to acquire language skills. The acquisition hypothesis suggests people have an acquired and learned system of entertaining a new language, with the acquisition process involving meaningful interaction in the "target language" . Using this hypothesis one may acquire language best through natural communications. Learned system process is the process of actually learning a language, like in a classroom environment."
