This is an expository essay, comparing and contrasting the story of the Tower of Babel vs. the evolution of language, with a specific concenration on the English language.
Abstract This essay begins with a quotation taken from the Bible, describing the story of the Tower of Babel. It then proceeds to break down language, from its origins through its evolution down to modern times. It attempts to portray that although Babel is a myth, its premise is true-all language and thus people were cut from essentially the same cloth.
From the Paper ?And the Lord said, ?Indeed the people are one and they all have one language, and this is what they begin to do; now nothing that they propose to do will be withheld from them. Come, let Us go down and there confuse their language, that they may not understand one another's speech.?? (Genesis 11:6-7) It is the humans? ability to communicate through spoken word which differentiates us from our primitive counterparts. The legend of Babel identifies language as the tie that binds a society together and denotes a direct correlation between language and the advancement of a particular society. According to tradition, after the Lord destroyed the world by flood, the sons of Noah, who spoke one language and who were descendants of the same origin, were given the task to repopulate the earth. Perpetually plagued by the sins of Adam, they were driven to build a tower so great that they themselves would be seen as gods. Therefore the Lord debilitated them by removing their ability to communicate with one another, which forced them to diverge into separate, distinct societies. Although the story grossly over simplifies both the complex history of man and the evolution of language, its premise does have some merit. Popular modern languages can be traced ancestrally to a few families. Furthermore, languages that have survived - English as the most prominent example - are considerably indebted to the influence of the powerful societies that spoke them."
Abstract This paper looks at the Yiddish language, which originated in Eastern Europe and was brought to the Western World towards the end of the 19th century. The writer includes a history of the language and shows which Yiddish words have become common used words in the English language today. Finally, the paper offers some data collected by a study at Columbia University about the dialect.
From the Paper "The Yiddish dialect is commonly used in the American language. There are dozens of Yiddish words that have been assimilated into American slang speak. Yiddish has impacted American culture in a variety of ways. Yiddish culture, drama and writing influenced the American theatre scene and a large body of literary works through the early 1900s. It was in fact greatly popularized during this period of time, and many Yiddish playwrights and poets were well known and respected within the United States. However of late the press suggested that Yiddish is steadily declining within the United States, to the point of virtual extinction."
Abstract This paper emphasize different aspects of language that show it to be an important factor in human history, using the history of the English language as an example. The paper delves deep into the roots of the English language and, point by point, shows that language was crucial in the development of the history of humanity.
From the Paper "There were several historic events that brought on these changes. One was the work of Shakespeare, who has become a key player in the relating of the history of the English language. Another was the invention of printing, which helped to unify the language under a common reading and writing system, which led to a somewhat unified speaking system. Early Modern English then later on turned into Present Era English, which was helped along and distinguished by several things. First the publication of English dictionaries again helped to unify the language as a whole (Roberts 429). Also the development of an English grammar system, which allowed for a somewhat uniform way of teaching English to children and preserving the language as well (Roberts 429)."
Abstract This paper looks at human communications and explains why they are more complicated than surface value. Semantics, meanings, and nonverbal cues are often very hard for people to pick up on. The kind of gestures and faces that people make while speaking can have drastic influence on how the message is interpreted by others. The writer looks at the physical, verbal, and linguistic issues.
From the Paper "Communication in one way or another has been around longer than any of us can imagine. Although the first interactions among and between animals were probably grunts and growls, without specific interpretations for the sounds, body language probably helped the receiving animals decipher the sounds into an understandable message. For instance, if primate A saw primate B who appeared to be searching for a meal, primate A may grunt to get B's attention, then point or make a gesture towards a source of food. It is believed by many researchers that sign language came before spoken language as we know it today. Today's primates, such as chimpanzees, tend to have a strong focus on the arms of other animals, as if recognizing the arms as the primary component of communication, which is one reason that many researchers believe that sign language came first (Zimmer). However, primitive communications were not limited to hand gestures and grunts but included markers, body language, and facial expressions. Today, these non-verbal skills are just as important as they were before the development of spoken language."
Abstract A history of the written word, examining writing from its Sumerian origins through the development of the Greek alphabet. The focus is the shift from pictographic characters to a phonetic alphabet. This paper discusses the Old Canaanite, Phoenician, Egyptian, Hebrew, and Aramaic scripts as well.
From the Paper "The calling and constant challenge of the poet has been to express, in writing, the highly dynamic and abstractly imaginal feeling of the human condition. Similarly, individuals have long attempted to preserve facets of life for convenience, future reference, or posterity. Writing, now a virtual necessity, was not used until the advent of civilizations, when life became complex enough that memory could not keep track of all of those things one needed to remember. It is a much younger art than that of the spoken language ? which has existed for tens of thousands of years ? but has come far from the early days of writing to today. The first forms of writing are results of the ancient Sumerian and Egyptian civilizations."
Abstract This paper focuses on how the English tongue was derived from Germanic by examining the similarities between the structure and vocabulary of Old and Middle English and German. It looks at how Anglo-Saxon was an inflected language with a structure that is still retained by modern German speakers, coupled with word gender, past participle formation and the process of compounding. It explores through a literature review of works such as "Beowulf" and the Anglo-Saxon poem "The Seafarer" how the English that we speak today essentially evolved under the influence of many languages and how the Germanic tongue was perhaps one of the most instrumental in its formation.
From the Paper "On perusal of an Anglo-Saxon text such as Beowulf it would seem that the modern English translation uses far more words. The Germanic influence on Old English meant that it was a synthetic language structured on the inflection of nouns and adjectives for four cases in the singular and four in the plural. Through the inflection of Old English one could distinguish the job a word did in a sentence by its ending, regardless of its position. For example, the difference between the Modern English sentences, (i) the woman saw the man, and (ii) the man saw the woman is a matter of word order."
Abstract This paper examines "The End of Affluence" by Jeffrey Madrick, which centers on the decline of our economy and not the growth. It looks at how, instead of focusing on the rising affluence of American families, Madrick focuses on the end of the American economic growth machine and how, instead of focusing on the problems that economic growth can help solve, the author writes about the problems that economic stagnation has generated.
From the Paper "Stagnant incomes also put significantly greater emotional pressures on family members, thus leading to higher divorce rates and more families with two working spouses. Children must then fend for themselves a good part of the day, and so they complete less homework and perform at lower levels in school. ?In some ways, federal education funding is also merely symbolic - never enough to be a significant contribution except in schools in very poor neighborhoods. But federal education funding is very important as a way of getting the country to discuss educational priorities. For more than 20 years, the focus was on equity; in the 1980s, it shifted more toward the economy. Today, neither issue seems to be part of the budget conversations."
Abstract This paper discusses the phenomenon of bilingualism. The paper examines the Spanish-speaking, Puerto Rican population of America. The paper explores the option of the United States becoming officially bilingual. The paper presents several controversies that surround the issue of whether the United States should be officially bilingual or not.
From the Paper "Americans can see some effects of bilingualism as official policy by looking at the packaging of many things sold in the United States, because much of that packaging already contains two languages -- English and French. This is because Canada is officially bilingual, and anything sold in Canada must be labeled in both languages. First examination of this marketing practice suggests that recognizing the presence of two languages in a country may be good for business, as people speaking both languages can shop with ease."
Abstract This paper begins with a brief biographical look at the life of linguist and philosopher, Noam Chomsky, and then proceeds to examine his contributions to both of these fields, the main theme of scientific realism evident in all of his work, and early influences on his political and social views.
Introduction
Influences
Linguistics
Ethics and Society
From the Paper "Noam Chomsky's contribution to linguistics and philosophy, as well as contemporary theoretical and political thought, is extensive. He received numerous awards and accolades, specifically for his work in linguistics. Chomsky was born in Philadelphia in 1928. As the son of Russian immigrants he was influenced by their belief in pacifism. His early education took place at a progressive school as well as at Philadelphia Central High school. He later attended the University of Pennsylvania where he studied mathematics, philosophy and linguistics. He completed his PhD in Linguistics in 1955 and was appointed Professor at the the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1976."
Abstract This paper examines how the story of Lucian's Alexander has many similarities to modern-day Christianity and how Christianity has been shown to have borrowed many ideas from other pagan religions in its infancy, so these correlations may or may not be coincidence. It looks at how the foundation of Christianity, Jesus Christ's rebirth, is an almost identical story to the known religious scam established by Alexander, as described by Lucian.
From the Paper "Lucian's account was very scandalous and basically has condemned Alexander to remain forever in history as a religious swindler who simply purchased a large snake and then choose a group of people to scam. The ploy, as described by Lucian, was that Alexander and his cronies planted bronze tablets, created fake talking serpents and claimed that his serpent had descended to earth from a godly past. Lucian detailed how well thought out the plan was and how Alexander used official looking documentation and even baby snakes thought to be hatched from goose eggs to carry out his deceitful objectives. In effect, the scheme hatched by Alexander entailed advertising agents, tainted government officials and lie after lie which in turn fooled everyone. As P.T. Barnum pointed out, ?There's one born every minute!""
Abstract This paper presents an overview of studies on language acquisition and the relevance of critical periods of learning. The paper reports on studies done on the brain and actual learning situations, which have shed light on this topic and the implications of these studies.
From the Paper "The most concentrated period of language development is during the first three years of a human's life when the brain is developing and maturing. The first stages of communication take place right after birth when an infant learns that a cry will bring responses such as nourishment. The newborns also start recognizing essential sounds in their immediate environments such as their parent's voice. As they become older, children begin to learn the structure of their language. By six months of age, most recognize the basic sounds of their native language and are able to make simple repetitive sounds or phonemes such as "ma ma" or ?ba ba.? By the age of two, they can form short sentences and recognize symbols such as pictures in a book. By three or four, they can clearly make themselves understood, understand concepts that are near them or out of sight, and even read a letter or two or short words (ibid)."
Abstract This paper analyzes and compares these two works by Orwell and Baldwin about language and how language serves as a tool that expresses more than just speech. The paper explains that, in Orwell's opinion, language is an instrument that reflects culture and evolves as culture declines, while in Baldwin's view, language emerges to fit a societal need.
From the Paper "Both writers understand that language evolves and reflects society and culture. Orwell states that "language is a natural growth and not an instrument which we shape for our own purposes" (Orwell). In reference to African American language, Baldwin seems to support Orwell's assertion, adding that the role of language "reveals the speaker. Language also, far more dubiously, is meant to define the other--and in this case, the other is refusing to be defined by a language that has never been able to recognize him" (Baldwin). Both writers understand that language is a process that develops to express the personality of its culture."
Abstract This paper explores the linguistic analysis of specific words from a paragraph from the beginning of the "Declaration of Independence". The paper provides a definition for time orientation. The paper also analyzes the grammar and style of the excerpt. The paper examines what the general assessment of the document is regarding the American declaration and explores how it orients into culture.
From the Paper "The Founding Fathers used powerful verbs like ike "hold," "secure," "institute," "alter," and "organizing" (Congress, 1776) to convey a message. It is almost as if they are taking a stand against the evil of the world. They did this knowing strong grammar would be essential in creating a foundation for freedom. When speaking of "what-if" scenarios like "government becomes destructive" or " it is the right" (Congress, 1776), the passive voice cannot help but be used. Still it used repetitiously to convey poetic rhythm and strength. Bold use of words makes this selection almost lyrical and captivates, mandates attention. Still the voice is based out of a solid religious belief of a Creator. Because the Creator is mentioned the style of the work can be considered Biblical or based on religious beliefs. Use of "endowed" implies that the Creator has provided to man. Also the phrase "government becomes destructive" alludes to outside forces like evil wreaking havoc. Use of the word "destructive" can also conjure imagery of the destruction of the Temple."
Abstract Through an analysis of the language acquisition process and a brief review of experiments designed to teach chimpanzees complicated linguistic communication, this essay argues that language ability is both environmental and biological.
From the Paper "At least the majority of us take our speech and linguistic abilities for granted. We rarely pause to consider why it is that man has the ability or capacity for complicated linguistic communication while other creatures, even those that most resemble human beings, do not. If the majority of us have not considered this question, a minority have. These are the anthropologists, the linguist and the psychologist. These three groups of academic researchers have examined the question of man's ability for complicated linguistic communication versus the inability of other creatures and have arrived at two different conclusions. Some have argued that the human ability for linguistic communication is a consequence of their having a unique biological ability for languages learning and communication. Others disagree, insisting that it is not a consequence of any inherent ability but of environmental training. As one tries to evaluate which of these points of views, or theories is the more accurate, on finds that evidence points in both directions, leading one to conclude that the unique human ability for languages is both biological and environmental in nature."
Abstract This paper examines how the Shakespearean works dominate the final decades of the Renaissance not only literally but also linguistically. In particular, it looks closer at the linguistic nature of Act 2 Scene 2 from "Romeo and Juliet" (written between 1597 - 1599) as a variety of English. It shows how language variety is an important concept in sociolinguistics and looks at different languages which differ systematically.
From the Paper "During Shakespeare's (1564 - 1616) years, England was a place of growth and change under the rule of Queen Elizabeth. Shakespeare was a man of the stage, working for the theatre company 'Lord Strange's Men' (page ix), which was the most popular company in London. He also worked at Queen Elizabeth's court during this time. His plays were written to be performed and to give an audience what they wanted: entertainment. Shakespeare drew his inspiration from a society which was in love with life and with man, and Romeo and Juliet was his first tragedy."
