Abstract Using Samuel Ichiye Hayakawa's article, "Bilingualism in America: English Should Be the Only Language", this paper examines the issue of bilingualism in the United States. The paper discusses both ideas for and against the debate. It also examines the methods that Hayakawa uses to attract his readers to his views, including repetition, emotion, and ethics.
From the Paper "With everyone in America having their own opinion on this issue, the author tries to rally more people on to his side with this essay. He uses several techniques in this essay to make his point. He persuades his audience successfully by using repetitions, examples, emotions, logic and ethics. By listing certain background information, such as his past government positions and his past residency, he makes himself a reliable source for information pertaining to language. He also uses examples for and against his position to his advantage to make his point. If English is made the official language of the United States, Samuel Hayakawa makes the audience believe that they will be a more stable and flourishing country."
Abstract The debate over whether or not English-only policies are justified in the American workplace is sure to continue; however, there is no clear-cut guidelines to determine whether or not a company should have an English-only policy. The best advice to date is to limit the implementation of an English-only policy unless there is a clear business necessity that presents justification for having one. This paper presents an overview of the English-only debate in the United States, including background information and arguments made by proponents and opponents. The paper closes with a set of guidelines for organizations deciding to either maintain or implement English-only policies and recommended alternatives to English-only policies in the American workplace.
From the Paper "English-only is an extremely broad term. For the purposes of this paper English-only policies are the entire spectrum of language policies enforced in the workplace that either promote the usage of English or restrict the usage of non-English languages in some way. In the broader English-only debate there are other terms used to differentiate the specific type of policies enforced. In governmental legislation, an English-only law would be a law allowing ?"only"? English usage and no usage of other languages. On the contrary, an Official English policy or law would make English the official language of use, but not restrict the usage of languages other than English. The fact that many individuals involved in English-only debates are using the same terminology to refer to different types of policies adds to the confusion. It also helps explain why, in the court rulings, it is almost impossible to provide a clear definition of why certain policies are legal and others are illegal (Hoffman, 2001, p. 3). In the United States, neither the constitution nor the federal law codifies English as the nation?'s official language (Santoro, 1999, p. 890). So contrary to belief of many, English is not the official language of the United States. However, twenty-three states have active Official English statutes and others are pending (Crawford, 2002). But even these statutes vary enormously. Some state statutes simply declare English as the official language of the state in sort of a symbolic gesture; much the same way state birds are named (American Civil Liberties Union, 2002). Other states, such as Arizona, which has the, ?"the most restrictively worded official-English law"? (Arington, 1991), take their statutes much more seriously. Some state and local language laws have gone as far as to restrict the governments from providing emergency services such as police lines in non-English languages (American Civil Liberties Union, 2002)."
Abstract This paper proposes a research project that would examine the effectiveness of English instruction of mathematics on Second Grade ELL (English language learners) students as compared to the effectiveness of instruction in their native language. The proposal is in response to the controversy surrounding the issue of how best to teach mathematics to children from non-English-speaking backgrounds, since it has been found that the best way for children to learn to use mathematics to organize, understand, compare, and interpret their experiences is by making a connection between mathematics and their everyday lives. The paper examines whether ELL students should be taught how to make this connection in their native language with gradual exposure to English in language classes, or whether they should be immersed in English as early as possible. The paper includes an annotated bibliography and an observation checklist of lessons taught in class.
Introduction
Setting
Problem/Issue
Research Question
Hypothesis
Methodology
Subjects
Instrumentation
Significance of the Study
From the Paper "Mathematics is a powerful tool for interpreting the world. Research has shown that for children to learn how to use mathematics to organize, understand, compare, and interpret their experiences, mathematics must be connected to their lives. Such connections help students to make sense of mathematics and view it as relevant. There has, however, been controversy with regard to children from non-English backgrounds and the best ways to get them to make those connections. Questions are raised regarding how to instruct these children who are referred to as English language learners (ELL?s). Should they initially be taught in their native language with gradual exposure to English in language classes, or should they be immersed in English as early as possible."
Abstract This paper discusses how different ethnic and cultural groups influence the process of bilingualism. The paper focuses on the effect that bilingualism has on children. The paper identifies immigration and intermarriage as the two main ways that children become bilingual. The paper distinguishes between two different kinds of bilingualism: fluent bilingualism, if a child speaks both languages fluently; and limited bilingualism, if a child doesn't speak any of the languages well.
From the Paper "In the discussion part of the paper Schecter discussed the relationship between family language environment and the development of bilingualism in different sociolinguistic contexts. She also pointed out the importance of parents' attitude toward bilingual education and success of their children in bilingualism. Parents experience the events associated with language use day-to-day life as enablers of, or constraints to, the maturation of their children's identities as social and cultural beings."
Abstract This paper begins by examining the many and varied theories used to explain the causes of stuttering and then follows with an analysis of stuttering and its affect on academic achievement. The paper asserts that this analysis supports the argument that stuttering is primarily a psychologically-caused, linguistic impairment condition and that this knowledge is an important step towards reducing the academic difficulties faced by students who stutter.
From the Paper "The majority of children learn language in what seems to look like an easy and natural process, characterized by different stages of fluency. At each stage of the language acquisition process, the child gains a larger vocabulary and a greater fluency. Because most children pass from one stage to another without difficulty few people, except linguists, psychologists and scientists, have considered the minority of children who do not acquire linguistic fluency, and do not speak in a clear and comprehensible way, although they may have the same language knowledge and vocabulary as do others of their age group. Among the various linguistic problems that a child may suffer from, reducing his ability to use language fluently and to communicate effectively, is stuttering."
Abstract Numerous studies conducted over the years have suggested that females are more adept than males with regard to their vocal ability. This paper proposes that females have better linguistic abilities because they are both biologically more suited to language capability and because society has influenced women in a manner that dictates that they should have more linguistic ability.
From the Paper "For years researchers have sought to explain the sex differences that occur in language and human behavior (Joseph, 2000). Human females time and time again have proven to excel over their male counterparts with regard to language tasks and verbal abilities (Joseph, 2000). Females are generally credited with having more ability to express themselves from a social-emotional perspective and tend to vocalize more often among one another than males in groups or pairs (Joseph, 2000)."
Abstract This paper discusses and analyzes the essay, "Racism in the English Language," by Robert B. Moore. The paper focuses on the statement that language influences Western thought from the first moment we learn it. The paper illustrates, through this enlightening essay, that the English language is peppered with racial stereotypes and slurs, even in words and phrases that seem quite harmless. The paper questions whether it is intentional that many English words and phrases were created with subtle references to black as "bad" and white as "good" or whether they are simply a result of long repressed and unconscious thoughts and feelings about the races.
From the Paper "In the "Wrap-Up," the author states, "Negative language infects the subconscious of most Western people from the time they first learn to speak. Prejudice is not merely imparted or superimposed. It is metabolized into the bloodstream of society" (Moore 474). This statement is thought provoking because it makes the reader stand back and look at the subconscious ways language has affected our beliefs and ideas from the first time we could listen and speak. This is interesting and yet frightening at the same time. If it is true, that language "colors" our vision subconsciously from the beginning of life, then it also seems to imply that we really have no chance of every overcoming prejudice and racial bias in Western society, for the thoughts are too ingrained and run too deep. No matter how much we try, there will still be inherent prejudices that are too big to overcome."
Abstract This paper discusses the issue of 'English Only' laws in America. The United States is a pluralistic society. It can be described as 'a melting pot' of languages and cultures. Language is a critical part of every culture and brings with it a strong sense of national linguistics, cultural identity, and individual perception. Language helps to tell who a person is, that person's values and beliefs. The paper contends that unity and disunity can be a result of the use of multiple and solitary languages. The paper explains that the welfare of the public can be greatly affected by language, as seen through the viewpoints of health care professionals and public educators presented in this paper.
Outline
Introduction
Linguistic Nationalism
Pluralistic Society
Language and Maintenance of Identity
Perception and the Role of Language
Single/Multiple Languages - Unity or Disunity
Stakeholders
Viewpoints from Health Care Professionals
Viewpoints from Public Educators
Conclusion
From the Paper "Throughout the history of the United States there have been multiple languages spoken by different cultures. A "melting pot" of cultures (including languages) is what the United States has been known for. This linguistic diversity continues into our present day culture. Language is a critical part of every culture and brings with it a strong sense of national linguistics. A society's identity and perception revolve around their language. Multiple or solitary languages can bring either unity or disunity depending on the situation. In every society, the welfare and needs of the public is strived to be taken care of. When there are multiple languages spoken in a pluralistic society, the lack of communication can be a barrier for the populations needs."
Abstract This paper discusses growing diversity in the U.S. and the need to reshape our conception of literacy to include bilingualism. The paper confronts fallacies concerning bilingual education and the need to teach bilingually.
From the Paper "As societies shift and flux with time, it is necessary to alter the guidelines for literacy accordingly. If, as a nation, the United States desires to maintain a proficient level of literacy amongst its population as a whole, then it must be willing to move forward and make the necessary changes. Such changes are clearly taking place now in the United States, in the form of increasing ethnic and lingual diversity. As has been shown, our brains are clearly capable of adapting to such a change. Bilingual education is the next step."
Abstract This paper looks at the social problems that surround the the Bilingual Education Act. It examines whether it was an anti-poverty measure to overcome the educational disadvantage of minority students, or, in other words, to cure the academic problems caused by limited proficiency in English. It also questions whether it was an anti-discrimination tactic to make the curriculum more accessible to limited-English-proficient (LEP) students. Looks at a few cases in the educational systems history, which challenged this act also.
Outline
Introduction
Content of Title VII
Lau v. Nichols
Immediate Implications of the Lau Decision
Post-Decision Discussion of Lau v. Nichols
Effects of Lau v. Nichols on School Districts
Effects of Lau v. Nichols in the Classroom
From the Paper "Viewing the current state of partisan politics and partisan factions concerning everything from the arts to education to security of the state, it is difficult to believe that when Lyndon B. Johnson was president of the United States, a law with vast power to alter American society was made law without a single dissenting voice (Crawford, 1998, p. 50+). That law was The Bilingual Education Act, also known as Title VII, Equal Education Opportunities Act, and Title VII of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act. However, since that time, there has been dissent in abundance, with some states attempting to virtually neutralized the law's effects."
This paper discuses the experiences of an English Second Language (ESL/EFL) Japanese student as a base for examining language learning strategies, specially the relationships between language, culture and society.
Abstract This paper explains that, because students come with specific purposes for learning, one of the best ways to keep them motivated is to help them feel progress towards their goals, which are identified by interviewing informally the student. The author points out the importance of engaging ESL learners in communicative (game type) or integrative (short/small activities form larger activities) activities using materials, which are authentic, thereby, aiding the learners in unpredictable spoken language outside the class. The paper relates that students of English conversation must understand the fundamental difference between learning about the language and learning to use it for verbal communication.
Table of Contents
Introduction
Background Information of Interviewee
Report and Commentary on the Information Collected in the Conversation
What are Main Reasons for Learning English for ESL/EFL Learners in Japan?
What Stereotypes Take Place for a Foreign Teacher While Teaching ESL in Japan?
What are Key Features and Problems of ESL Learning in Japan and How can They Be Resolved by ESL Teachers to Achieve Best Results?
What Type of Class is more Desirable for ESL Students?
Does "Cultural Background" Play Any Role in Learning ESL in Japan?
Conclusion
From the Paper "The learner that I have interviewed generally has a strong first language model back at home in Japan. The interviewee had been in institution and educated at home from young till diploma level. Later, when he came to Australia with pursuing a degree in mind, he had a choice to either take an exam, TOFEL or take up a course with the duration of 3 months to learn English. This is because, his previous education did not meet the requirement of the university that he intended to enroll in. The requirement was that his previous education has to be taught in English for duration of more than 12 months."
Abstract Teachers and parents play complex roles in the educational attainment of language and literacy learners. This paper discusses issues surrounding the effectiveness of teachers of students from diverse backgrounds. It attempts to show how for children whom English is not the first language, a thorough understanding of the literacy practices of the home is vital to ensure they have the best chance to succeed at school.
From the Paper "Viewing language learning as cultural rather than natural shifts language away from the realm of personal development, becoming cultural capital. Traditional literacy practices involve the imposition of texts and readings by the dominant culture, leading to students becoming alienated and disempowered. This leads us to the conclusion that literacy is not a unitary skill. People can be literate in many ways, for example computer literate, 'street' literate, or even classroom literate, but each individual literacy involves being an insider to a particular Discourse. (Green & Campbell 2003)"
Abstract This paper discusses the role played by language in sexism. The paper examines whether language is the cause of sexism or whether sexism causes certain language. The paper contends that this might be impossible to distinguish, but assesses that language clearly plays a key role in perpetuating sexism and inequality between men and women. The paper claims that sexist language reveals the gender-bias that is pervasive in society. Sexist language takes many forms. From gender-related words used as insults or compliments to the sexualizing of previously gender-neutral words, the paper presents a myriad of examples of how the English language helps foster a chauvinistic society. The paper explores how the normalization of the male and reliance on masculine pronouns and nouns marginalizes the existence of women in society.
From the Paper "Gender-based words also play a role in maintaining sexual inequality when used in an insulting manner. For example, some of the most pejorative insults in the English language consist of calling a person a derogatory term for a vagina. Not only is the "p" word one of the ultimate insults that a person can levy towards a man, it has also become synonymous with an absolute lack of courage. Given that women use their vaginas to bring forth life, in what is almost universally recognized as an extremely painful process, the fact that a euphemism for the word "vagina" has become synonymous with the word "coward" indicates how language helps perpetuate sexual inequality."
Abstract This paper uses evidence from ten different sources to analyze the hypothesis that honeybees can communicate the relative distance, direction and even the quality of the food source from their hive to their colleagues with their unique "dance language." This paper also examines alternative explanations and possibilities for the evidences.
From the Paper "Even with the overwhelming contradicting evidences to Frisch's original experiments, his original hypothesis of honeybees using forms of "dances" (dance language) to communicate the distance, direction, and quality of food sources is still true. The dances never had to be 100% accurate nor reliable for it to be considered true-even we (humans) make mistakes with our languages. For example, if you forgot someone's directions, does that disprove the fact someone communicated to you the directions using a language in the first place? There is no way to proof whether the bees that did not locate the resources just chose not to (which brings up more questions), or maybe just have forgotten the information-they do have very small brains!"
Abstract This paper discusses the semantics of female suppression and derogation in various cultural proverbs. The paper explains that a proverb is figurative communication with instructive functions that support the male attempt at maintaining control over dialogue in society. The paper examines the portrayal of womanhood in cultural proverbs, finding to to be commonly negative: Women are typically portrayed as being unreasonable, cynical, indulgent and feeble. The paper explores oral literature, especially in male dominated cultures, identifying the role of male oriented language in various proverbs which indicate prejudice and antagonism toward women in social communication.
From the Paper "Proverbs and sayings in many languages express the view that women are always talking. Furthermore, stereotypes which infer that woman talk more politely and that women use more questions have been commonly believed by the public. Two Japanese proverbs proclaim 'Where there are women and geese, there's noise' and 'when three women get together, it's noisy.' Obviously, these two proverbs suggest to us that women talk too much. Depending upon the context of the conversation, women's over excessive participation in dialogue may assume to be nonsense. Present day Japanese language has evolved very differently from European languages. One relatively unique aspect of Japanese is the diversity of its gender constructs and their usage."
