Abstract This paper examines the study of general and universal aspects of language with specific reference to Jorgen Habermas? rules for using and understanding language rationally. The goal of universal pragmatics is to identify and reconstruct conditions of possible understanding. The advantages and disadvantages of Habermas? "Universal Pragmatics" are discussed. It is of the writer's opinion that Habermas' emphasis on systematization and organization at times forces linguistic phenomena into pre-established categories, which leaves little room for nuances, details or humanly necessary embellishments.
From the Paper "This concept when adequately applied extends across the boundaries of culture and language, e.g. two Englishmen would use the same formulations to communicate in English, as would two Frenchmen"in French.? In this seminal work, in the book, ?Communication and Evolution of Society,? Habermas provides a simple construct for ideal communication (Habermas 1979). Throughout "What is Universal Pragmatics"? he maintains that all the complexities of sentence structures and their utterances are successfully communicated if an original intent is adhered to. Habermas maintains, that each form of communication, direct and otherwise, is to reach understanding. Such a pure communication is only possible if it is conducted"in a nutshell"clearly and honestly.?
This research paper uses Taylor-Heald's article on ?Three Paradigms of Spelling Instruction in Grades 3 to 6? as a basis for identifying each of the methods.
Abstract The following paper describes each method in the article by Taylor-Heald, where three paradigms are identified as the traditional, the transitional and the student-oriented. Each of these paradigms is a model for teaching children the basic and fundamental concept of spelling. This paper examines how each method is utilized and also discusses Taylor-Heald's view on each of the methods. After looking at each of the methods separately, the writer examines, briefly, the major differences between the methods. It then discusses the implications of each of the methods, including how each method is used and the benefits of each method. This also includes looking at various other research studies that offer perspectives on the teaching of spelling. Finally the paper concludes by showing how the student-oriented approach does appear to be the most promising approach, just as Taylor-Heald suggests.
From the Paper ?The traditional paradigm, as the name suggests, is the main method of instruction that has been used in the American school system to teach spelling and also to teach the basics of language. The method is based on students being taught vocabulary in the form of words that do not relate to each other. These words are random and have no relationship to each other, or to anything else being taught to the students. The teacher gives these words to the students, with the students expected to memorize them and the students are tested on this at the end of the week.This approach assumes that students know nothing at the beginning and that all information must be given to them. This includes the idea that children have no knowledge of words, sounds or language.?
Abstract This paper analyzes chapter 13 of Daniel Dennett's book "Darwin's Dangerous Idea" which speaks on the evolution of language. The paper discusses how the book presents a lengthy discussion of many opposing arguments to language creation based on Darwin's theory of evolution. The paper shows how Dennett particularly focuses on Noam Chomsky's refutation of the existence or involvement of Darwinism ideas on language creation. Dennett's position asserts that language has evolved because of the many processes organisms, particularly human beings, had experienced. - based on Darwin's popular ?natural selection process.?
From the Paper "After Dennett has presented his position in the first part of the chapter, he shifted the book's discussion to the opposing arguments of philosophers and scientists about the creation of language. Dennett particularly focused on Noam Chomsky's ideas and theories on how language was created. The main argument presented by Noam Chomsky against the Darwinian theory-based evolution of language is that ?? language didn?t really evolve but just rather suddenly arrived, an inexplicable gift, at best a by-product of the enlargement of the human brain.? Chomsky presented his argument based on the "adaptations" that the human brain had undergone, later developing what Chomsky termed as "specialized organ" solely functioning to facilitate language and its processes. Chomskian Linguistics centers on "language learning", or the learning of language through a set of rules already set in human minds. This set of rules came from the "specialized organ" of language faculty Chomsky has formulated, and is labeled as the ?Universal Grammar.? "
A paper on the sociology and linguistic perspectives of "The Ebonics Resolution" a Californian plan to accept African-American language as the primary language of African-American students.
Abstract The paper shows that in 1996, the Oakland School Board in California passed the "Ebonics Resolution" - a plan to accept African-American language, termed Ebonics, as the primary language of African-American students and to implement a system to teach them in their primary language as a means of assisting them to learn standard American English. The paper discusses the debate that followed involving the public and the media. It shows that while the linguistic experts in the field were in support of the Ebonics Resolution, the Resolution had a significant social impact. By comparing the meaning of the issue from a sociological and a linguistic perspective, the paper shows the real issues involved in their entirety.
From the Paper "In the Ebonics debate the part of culture involved is language, a very basic component of our society. Language is something that is taken for granted, with the belief of the general population being that the accepted language is the correct one. The social rejection of Ebonics and the rejection of accepting it as a primary language can be seen as a form of the majority group of society asserting their own belief in their superiority. This is not necessarily representing that the majority group do not want to accept others. Instead it reflects the basic principle of society assuming that the majority group is correct."
Tags: LSA, dialect, communication, AAVE, ethnic, groups
Abstract This paper explores the deeper meaning behind the use of the word "country" in JFK's famous quote, "Ask not what your country can do for you--ask what you can do for your country." It provides the definition as given in Webster's Dictionary, and discusses the strong connection between 'country' and 'patriotism'. Kennedy's intentions in choosing this word are explored.
From the Paper "Certainly, the use of the word country has an interesting role in the narrative of JFK's speech. Prior to the speech, America had been through a difficult and tumultuous period, and his use of the word country was important in the context of that narrative. The word country helped evoke the feeling that the United States was indeed a unified and true land, and that recent events only played a part in its much larger, and noble history."
Tags: patriotism, presidency, US, etymology, narrative, political, people
From the Paper "The phoneme /?/ is also known as "ash." The lower-case symbol ? is the form used in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) to refer to "a not quite open, front unrounded vowel, higher than Cardinal 4 and lower than Cardinal 3" (McArthur & Weiner, 1992, p. 84). An example of its phonetic use is the common American pronunciation of the word cat, /k?t/. The orthographic ligature <?>, or upper case <?>, was employed in Old English orthography to indicate a sound that fell somewhere between a and e, containing elements of both, while being distinct from either of those vowels. The scholarly name ash was given to this grapheme because the Old English word for ash tree (also ?sc, or aesc) was a mnemonic name used for the character. This name was then adopted by linguistics scholars to refer to the phoneme /?/. Though subsequent orthographic uses of <?> did ..."
This paper explores the areas of linguistics and the history of the English language in terms of what an English teacher should know before teaching the subject.
Abstract This paper asks if future English teachers should study the history of English. The writer shows that teachers should have a knowledge of linguistics. Main points of the paper include: why English is complicated, why languages (especially English) change, grammar rules and problems, spelling history and problems, how dialects are developed and how they influence English in the classroom, semantic changes and more. The paper concludes that all these contribute to a better and more interesting English classroom.
From the Paper "The English language has a rich history, spanning centuries and passed on by different tribes. A lot of other languages, especially French, has had some influence on the English language. The language has undergone many changes in its history, including the Great Vowel Shift, which changed the way English was spoken. Some people who know more than one language have said that English is the hardest language to learn. As of today, many educated professors and acclaimed administration members probably don"t know the real reasons behind some grammar rules and depend on technology to correct their fragment sentences. What makes English such a hard language to learn and use, even for its native speakers" Will the knowledge of the history behind the English language enable teachers to help students master English? I believe that knowledge leads to understanding; therefore teachers with a strong background in the history of English will be better equipped to teach this difficult subject."
This paper looks at the essay "Interpretation" by Steven Mailloux. It explores the argument that he has made on what interpretation is and why people do it.
Abstract The writer discusses the questions surrounding the ways in which we interpret or translate. The paper explores the answers to the following questions: For whom is the interpretation done? By whom is the interpretation accepted?
From the Paper "In his essay "Interpretation", Mailloux is trying to establish what interpretation actually means and how people do it. He first defines the most common meaning of interpretation, which is to translate. Interpretation is essentially a word that has been translated from Latin, where its original meaning was "explanation". Mailloux presents the idea that interpretation is a translation of a text, for an audience that desires a translation."
Abstract This paper discusses America's progressing desensitization to profanity and argues that this trend is not a bad thing. By comparing profane language from the past to modern usage, as well as using examples from television and movies, the author proves that it could be possible for the idea of bad words to be erased and replaced with the idea of bad connotation alone. Specific emphasis on the word "fuck". The paper includes a graph.
From the Paper ""Fuck [taboo]: v.t. To cheat, trick, take advantage of, deceive, or treat someone unfairly. Very common"? (Wentworth, 203-4) This is just around one-tenth of the definition of the word "fuck" from Harold Wentworth's Dictionary of American Slang. An interesting point to be taken from this partial definition is the seemingly paradoxical inclusion of both the ?[taboo]? tag for the word and the phase ?Very common.? Can a word really be taboo (forbidden/unmentionable) if it is in "very common" usage? Apparently it can. There are a huge amount of taboo "bad" words in the English language, words that are spoken with relative freedom but censored from media and prohibited in schools. This censorship, however, has been rapidly losing its importance in American society, with movies, television and everyday conversations becoming more accepting of these curse words that were once so feared. Many censorship activists say that this lax attitude toward profanity is a sign of the decline of American society, and that steps must be taken to set the United States back on track to being a less offensive country. I say, ?Fuck that.? Despite the negative connotation in which I just used the word, "fuck" and other profane words can be used with positive connotations, and thus it is not truly the words themselves that are disagreeable, but the connotation with which they are used. The desensitization of America to profanity is not a bad thing; it is possible, if trends continue, for the idea of bad words to be almost completely demolished and replaced by the idea of bad connotation."
Abstract This paper examines difficulties associated with connections between writing style and the content of argument in essays written about the power of language by Richard Rodriguez and Gloria Anzald?a. The paper outlines the main ideas of each essay and then discusses the means by which the arguments are made and ways in which the authors' writing styles make an impact on their ideas.
From the Paper "In both Rodriguez's "The Achievement of Desire" and Anzald"a's "How to Tame a Wild Tongue," the subject matter is the social power of language and the need for Spanish-language users to acquire the dominant language in order to achieve social benefits. But as the essays show, the attitude toward this process is quite different in Anzald"a and Rodriguez. Anzald?a seems hostile to the English language and to a culture that does not honor the Spanish language in general or various Spanish dialects in particular. Her general response is one of defiance, for example when she says that to attack an individual's form of expression (in her case, speaking her Chicano Spanish dialect at school) with the intent to censor "is a violation of the First Amendment" (40). She makes it very clear that she is determined to be linguistically free despite English oppression -- "free to write bilingually and to switch [linguistic] codes without always having to translate" (41). She is determined always to have a "wild tongue." If Rodriguez is hostile to the same culture, he does not seem to be hostile to either Spanish or English per se. Instead, he develops the view that in American culture, where one language only and educational accomplishment are connected to social and material benefit, those who seize the power of language and education are more likely to obtain those benefits. But this is a mixed blessing because obtaining those benefits may force emotional and cultural separation from family members who lack language or educational accomplishments."
Abstract In Roland Barthes' structuralist semiotic approach to sociology, it is clear that much insight into the character of society and culture can be derived by linguistic analogy. The paper shows that Barthes develops the view that language has a dual function that is public, available for all to see in a social context on one hand and on the other a psychological, i.e., private or imaginative, function. Creative and imaginative processes are associated with the impulse to respond to and express or interpret the public or social meanings that are made in and by language in its cultural function. The paper shows that much of what the individual experiences as either social or personal begins with language--identity, features of experience, narrative, communication with others and so on.
From the Paper "Thus Barthes looks at how linguistic forms, whether advertisements, art, rhetoric, or forms of social organization that function as communication, are actually used, with a view toward showing how their function indicates or signifies meaning for the (personal and private) experience of society. In other words, Barthes is looking at what social, public expressions intend to accomplish, with a view toward exposing the truth of or agenda behind those communicative processes. Signs and symbols, including language but also images, art, sounds, and so on, are the media of communication. The signs may be psychological or physical or both, and either manifestly or by way of some kind of code meant to convey (or conceal) meaning, these signs (signifiers) refer to or stand for (signify) some thing. The semiotic sociology, then, seeks to account for, or so to speak "decode," what is seen or expressed overtly. It is necessary because all linguistic designations come from somewhere."
Abstract This paper examines the criteria for measuring early language development, the concepts associated with ascertaining a child's developmental progress, the research supporting the prevailing theories and the significant findings inherent in credible research in these areas. It discusses how all over the globe young children seem to effortlessly acquire two or more languages at one time, while some uphold the belief that children who are exposed to multiple languages too early may experience developmental language delays and/or confusion. It evaluates how scientific research has attempted to examine whether young bilinguals can ascertain that they are acquiring two separate and distinct languages early on.
Outline
Introduction
Research and Analysis
Bilingual Paradox
Bilingual Deficit Hypothesis
Unitary Language System Hypothesis
Bilingual Advantage Hypothesis
Differentiated Language System Hypothesis
Vocabulary Development
The MacArthur CDI
Linguistic Milestones
Lexical Identifiers
Neutrals
Translation Equivalents
Interlocutor Sensitivity
Language Choice
Codemixing
Parental Discourse Strategies
Early Constraints
Conclusion
Bibliography
From the Paper "The line of thought that resembles popular opinion about whether or not children should be raised bilingual from birth is called the "Bilingual Paradox". It is a paradox because there are conflicting contemporary theories about whether or not it is the preferred method of introducing two languages. While much research shows that, by several measures, children who are exposed to two languages simultaneously between the ages of zero and three achieve major milestones within the same timeframe and with similar results as monolinguals, the contemporary line of thought has been to teach a child one language early on, reserving the introduction of a second language for the later school years. The thinking associated with the latter opinion is that introducing two languages early on will confuse the child, or that the child will be disadvantaged in mastery of one or both languages. There are, however, steps parents can take early on based on proven research to give their child an advantage in learning language skills. Methodologies, tools, timing mechanisms and support strategies have been developed through testing and observation that aids children in successful and timely language development, specifically in the adoption of multiple languages."
Abstract This paper begins by explaining that as the world moves toward a global economy, machine translation is the growing wave of the future; with these machines translating passages into another language almost instantaneously. The paper addresses the fears of the translation profession, that it will become obsolete in the near future. However, this paper argues that though machine translators will undoubtedly prove to be a useful tool and time-saving device, they will still need human intervention in order to maintain the quality of translation needed in businesses today.
Introduction
Rationale
Thesis
Literature Review
Machine translation: History and Current Issues
Future Research Trends and Projects
Discussion and Conclusions
Works Cited
From the Paper "Since the earliest beginnings of human civilization, one of the key problems facing human beings has been how to communicate. We are a small planet of millions of people, all speaking hundreds of different languages. In the age of technology, it is not surprising that someone would conceive of the idea that a machine could fulfill this basic need for us. Science fiction writers introduced the idea years ago, with multi-language translators on Star Trek. These were amazing devices, they could translate hundreds of intergalactic languages from one to another with ease. This may sound like the far-fetched dreams of a mad person, but this idea is not as far away as one might think."
Abstract This paper focuses its discussion on the use of language in the two works and comments on the authors' use or rejection or variation of what for recognition's sake we will call standard English. It explains that language is a powerful tool in storytelling, and these two short stories are excellent examples of the disparity of language, and what an important part it can play in the telling of a tale, especially a regional one. Language is so important; it can almost be considered another character in these two stories.
From the Paper "In "Do Angels Wear Brassieres?" the language for the children is the dialect of Jamaica, imitating the rhythmic and singsong way Jamaicans have of speaking, and the author uses this dialect almost from the first sentence in the story. "No. Not praying for nobody that tek whe mi best glassy eye marble" (Senior 1115). This way, the reader understands who the characters are immediately, and the flavor of the story is instantly set in the reader's mind. The author sets the natives and the foreigners apart by using language, and the difference is subtle but extremely important. The foreign adults are more "mature," and speak in the "proper" English language of grownups, while the children and the natives speak in the magical language of the islands. It sets them apart from each other, and additionally intimates what the natives lose of their heritage as they lose their lovely language to "proper" English. It is clear the narrator of the story is a child by the language of the narration; it is simple and lilting like the speech of the natives. Senior does not use punctuation to imitate the quick speech of the natives, and it is an interesting technique. It is difficult to read, but it captures the people perfectly. The language here is almost like another character; it is so vivid and so important to the story. If Senior had written the story in "normal" English, it would not have had nearly the impact or the charm that is has."
Abstract This paper addresses the effects of nonverbal communication, including appearance, mannerisms and body language, on obese and overweight people in their career, employment and social lives. It analyzes how nonverbal communication can have both a positive and negative effect on how effectively a person gets their message across and how those who understand the strong influence of nonverbal communication and use it to their advantage are often able to use it to enhance their verbal communications skills. It discusses how appearance and body language aspect of nonverbal communication often leads to discrimination against overweight people in social and business settings and how there is evidence that overweight people have less of a chance of success than thinner people, who are perceived as more attractive.
From the Paper "Obese job applicants are often perceived as having poorer work habits, higher absences, and more likely to get ill than thinner applicants (Borrell, 2003). After watching videotaped job interviews of several applicants with equal qualifications, people rated obese applicants as: less qualified; less likely to be hired; having poorer work habits; more likely to fake an illness and stay home from work; more likely to have emotional problems; and more likely to have problems with coworkers."
