Abstract This paper discusses the "Ebonics" of African Americans as a viable alternative dialect. It looks at the nature of dialect in general and its effects on social status and perceived levels of education, talent and achievement. The paper shows the importance of the study of Ebonics as it is a true expression of African-American pride, values and history.
From the Paper "The struggle to understand and recognize Ebonics represents, first and foremost, the need to understand the effects of the dialect on African-Americans and their place in American society. Various aspects of African-American English have been traced to West African patterns of speech, among these the use phrases like "you still in slavery," where the verb "to be" is conspicuously absent from the sentence. In fact such phrasing has been taken as a sign that African-Americans continue to occupy a place in American society similar to that which they occupied in the days of slavery. Nevertheless, the social stigma attached to the use of such speech patterns, even in early childhood, has been taken by others as a legitimate attempt to help young African-Americans to advance in the larger majority White society. Opponents of Ebonics claim that the dialect is hardly African at all, and represents nothing more or less than "poor language habits." By claiming a false African origin for the dialect, supporters are merely attempting to get around the dialect's deficiencies by resorting to assertions of Black pride. In other words, any move to de-legitimize such speech patterns is tantamount to disparaging African-American history and culture, another example of the relegation of African-American cultural norms to the very bottom of the social scale."
Abstract The paper analyzes W.J.T. Mitchell's essay "Word and Image", which explores the distinction between images and words. The paper comments on this essay, passage by passage, and concludes that it offers more questions than it does answers. The paper also points out that, although the essay does not offer us a definition of word and image, there may actually be no practical definition.
From the Paper "WJT Mitchell's status as a critic in the art world is impressive, and his writings about art are globally influential. His essay "Word and Image" is part of a definitive collection of essays, most of which define critical art terms. The critical art term that Mitchell defines here is "word and image." The first few paragraphs seem straightforward enough, and at first the essay seems to limit its scope to the challenges and limitations inherent in the task of describing images with words. However, Mitchell's prose soon becomes more and more complex as he deftly explains the illusory nature of defining such an intricate concept."
Abstract This paper examines the language acquisition of two children, A and G, who are each two years old. The paper places particular emphasis on their strategies for simplifying word-initial s+ consonant clusters. The paper also discusses noted deviations from adult forms, suggesting possible explanations to account for those deviations.
Outline:
Introduction
Evaluation of Data
Conclusion
From the Paper "Language acquisition is a complex and gradual process for children. The process works on two levels. Part of it is innate, and part is learned. As they advance developmentally, children absorb what they hear in their interactions with others, especially in their home environments. Phonological development is a gradual process during which speech patterns are first reproduced, and then eventually acquired. It is normal for mistakes, or phonological deviations, to be made during this process. Since young children are still developing their sound systems, their speech can at times be difficult to understand. Anyone who has tried to communicate with small children will have experienced this at some point. This is particularly true in very young children, specifically those under the age of five, since they have not yet mastered the ability to organize sound systems in the same way that adults do."
Abstract This paper examines and compares the link made between language and racism in Robert B. Moore's article "Racism in the English Language" with the link made in Anne Ishii's article "English as a Second Language". The paper relates that Moore's article demonstrates that racism is so deeply rooted in culture that it can be easily identifiable upon the analysis of a few linguistic structures whereas for Ishii, the main problem is one of perception: Once the mainstream culture adopts a self-centered perception of the other cultures, racism begins to infiltrate into its structure. In other words, according to Ishii, English is in itself employed as an emblem of the 'mainstream civilization' and the other cultures are 'different' simply because they speak English with an accent or make frequent confusions about words and expressions.
From the Paper "If perceived from the inside of the Japanese culture, the European heritage would certainly seem extremely exotic or different. Thus, the main problem is that of perception: once the mainstream culture adopts a self-centered perception of the other cultures, racism begins to infiltrate into its structure. Ishii establishes her argument on a critique of the film 'Memoirs of a Geisha.' The paper pertinently observes that the film is literally unintelligible since it proposes absurdly to use a Chinese cast which speaks in deliberately erroneous English."
Tags: self-evident, mainstream', culture, perception, unnaturally, different
Abstract The paper asserts that although language does show a sign of intelligence, the differences between animal and human language do not suffice for our views on intelligence. The paper challenges the way we attribute intelligence to the ability to speak and attempts to show how animal and human language are essentially very similar. The paper points out further that conditions such as strokes or retardation have the potential to effect language, but have no effect on test scores. The paper diasgrees with Descartes' belief that animals are machines and discusses John Searle's experiment known as "The Chinese Room". The paper concludes that our beliefs on language and its relevance to intelligence have many flaws and questions.
From the Paper "The complexity of our language and the basic acquisition of our ability to communicate is without a doubt a sign of intelligence. It is only with a human mind that we can understand the uniqueness of our grammar and the rules that govern the way we communicate with one another. Throughout research of our language and why it is that we began to speak in the first place, social hierarchy that places humans on the top has been constructed with all other species at the bottom. It is clear through our capabilities, whether they are evolved or innate, that there is a distinction between animal and human language. Since it is often thought that language itself is what defines us as humans (Pinker), it is our basis for the claim that we are most intelligent. However, are our abilities to speak and the structure of conventional rules enough to make this claim?"
Abstract The paper examines the role of language in the development of human nature, with particular reference to the function of thought. The paper shows that our nature is largely the consequence of the social interactions that we experience as we develop our lives and not the result of some wide ranging and all encompassing human nature. The paper goes on to to show how, while language is indeed an essential component in the production of thought, it is nonetheless incapable of explaining human development and outcomes in every instance.
From the Paper "What is it that makes who we are? Moreover, how can we account for the varied and differing actions of human beings and the general development of the human race as a whole? These are questions that have plagued academic authorities since the time of the ancient Greeks. Every academic discipline has in some measure or another attempted to explain and account for the essential features that make human beings distinct from other forms of life. In particular, sociologists have traditionally taken a central role in explaining the issues above. Above all, sociologists attempt to explain the world in which we live through the social actions and effects that we all encounter. 'No man is an Island' is certainly central to this conception. The society in which we live directly affects the manner of our development as a human being and thus can also affect out 'nature'."
Abstract The paper closely examines the words 'king' and tyrant' that were used for a ruler in European countries as well as 'sultan' and 'rajah' that were the names used in Turkey and Asian countries. The paper shows how although the four words all mean a non-elected ruler, each word has different origins and has undergone different semantic changes.
From the Paper "For thousands years ago, there had always been non-elected rulers of peoples throughout the world. Even in today, kings and queens still exist and rule in some countries such as the United Kingdom, Spain and Sweden. These monarchs symbolize the countries' glorious history where nobility and being "blue-blooded" were icons of superiority. Although today's kings and queens hardly have any power over their nations except for few Arab and Asian countries, most rulers throughout history had undeniable power over their people and the vestiges of ancient civilizations reflect that power (ex. the Tomb of Pharaoh). The rulers were sometimes thought to be gods or to have powers only gods may have. In different regions, cultures and times, the names used for the concept "rulers" vary and their meanings differ slightly. Further, the words used to describe those rulers experienced different semantic changes. King, tyrant, sultan and rajah are examples of these."
Abstract In this article, the writer notes that language is a complex symbiosis of verbal and nonverbal cues used to convey information within and across cultures. The writer then discusses that the needs for economy, for familiarity and for personal expression have together had the effect of enabling individuals to achieve a diversity of meanings and linguistic expressive tendencies within the context of a shared communication framework such as a language or dialect. Next, the writer presents an exploration of the way in which meanings and expressions may change when they are removed from the printed page. The writer concludes that factors such as context, the nature of the relationship between the conversant partners and general social conventions within a culture play a determinant role in the way that individuals choose both the information they disclose and the manner in which they disclose it.
From the Paper "This speaks to our instinctual use and comprehension of words which are created by the processes of blending and clipping. Word economy is a common trait of informal linguistic communication and even the word choice more commonly used in the business setting today, where there is a high premium on conciseness but linguistic decisions that are simultaneously comprehensible to a common denominator of recipients.
"This suggests much about the way that we appear to almost naturally understand such words. Their adoption as a natural consequence of the desires inherent in the process of human communication illustrates that they are not necessarily spontaneously produced on a whim by one inflective user. Rather, we may more accurately understand that such terms are reflective of some inherent need within the language. Whether the need is to express a new range of ideas within the concise context of a single word, as seems often to motivate blending or to convey information about one's self by suggesting through word choice a certain loose, off-the-cuff informality, it is clear that there are both conscious and unconscious forces at play in our choice of word economy."
Abstract In this article, the writer notes that social networking through such sites as MySpace and Facebook has become a popular and spreading interest in the United States. Such online contexts for community and group orientation and networking have originated in the U.S. and have generated remarkable success and innovative application there. The writer looks at how language barriers and cultural differences affect marketing efforts in different countries. The writer discusses that China is a market context where challenges are specific and dominant due both to the dramatic distinction between the Chinese language and Romantic or Latin-based tongues and due to China's isolated and distinctly defined cultural nature. The writer then discusses an approach to introducing a product like the iPod to Egypt, a country that is somewhat modernized but still characterized by many of the cultural distinctions of its region.
From the Paper "In both of these, we consider that there is a real and difficult obstruction for organizations seeking to establish a meaningful identity.
"In consideration of the example of Foster's beer, for one, we are given a narrative detailing a long and difficult process by which the Australian beer distributor was eventually able to penetrate the market. For Foster's, one of the biggest problems was its prior strategic dependence on its name and Australian identity, which are easily and charmingly conveyed in advertisement in America. In a non-English speaking market, this is a harder association to draw. "
Abstract The paper examines the features of universal human body language that can be completely unconscious to both the communicator and the recipient. The paper explains the phenomenon of mirroring and describes the nonverbal cues used by dating couples. The paper then shows why learning to interpret nonverbal communication is essential in the professions of sales, policing and nursing.
Outline:
Introduction
Universal Human Body Language
Mirroring Behavior and the Importance of Postures and Body Position
From the Paper "Like other animals, human beings have evolved patterns of body language to help them communicate with others. Because we rely so heavily on verbal communication, we tend not to notice it as consciously as spoken language except in more extreme circumstances such as fear or outright aggression. Nevertheless, human body language and other forms of nonverbal communication patterns provide considerable amounts of information about others (Gerrig & Zimbardo 2005)."
Abstract The paper examines the major theories of literacy to support the thesis that literacy can be used as a tool to separate and subjugate lower social classes of society. The paper focuses on the story of Frederick Douglas and explains how he learned to read and write. The paper explains how blacks were intentionally denied the tools of literacy that they needed to break free of the stereotypes and social status of inferiority. The paper concludes that Douglas' work is a culturally relevant way of writing history that provides us with a deeper understanding of what it meant to be a slave in early America.
Outline:
Douglas and the Slave's Perspective
Defining the Strategies that Douglas used to Read and Write
Conclusion
From the Paper "Theories differ on how people learn to read and write. The connection between reading and writing is one of the most debated topics in literary circles. However, the debate over this topic pales to the debate over the relationship between culture and literacy. Major theorists are divided into two groups of thought on this topic. The first argues that literacy is necessary for the advancement of culture and society. The other argues that literacy is independent of society and that they have little influence on each other."
This paper provides an analysis of grammar and writing style, focusing on grammar used in the article 'Meat Is Murder On The Environment' by Daniele Fanelli.
Abstract In this paper, Daniele Fanelli's July 18, 2007 article "Meat is Murder on the Environment," which was originally published in NewScientist Environment, is studied, and her use of grammar tested. The writer points out that by combining her ability to use not only correct, but also effective grammar with her innovative writing style, Fanelli has created an excellent persuasive piece. An analysis of Fanelli's words, nouns and noun phrases, verbs, clauses and clause types, grammar of discourse, and professional grammar, provides a comprehensive overview of the article. The writer concludes that by analyzing Fanelli's article, the many implications of grammar on writing style and the understandability of a work have become clear. Grammar is no longer for teachers and elementary school students, but for anyone who wants to make a professional impact.
Outline:
Introduction
Words
Semantic Representation
Form
Grammatical Category
Morphemes and Morphology
Nouns and Noun Phrases
Verbs
Clauses
The Grammar Of Discourse
Professional Contexts/ Conclusion
From the Paper "Because this article is of a scientific nature, the author leaves many opportunities for students of English to study morphemes and their importance to semantics or meaning. For instance, the first paragraph of the article presents two words that are rather difficult to understand: eutrophication and acidification. The two lexemes are formed using the base words "eutrophic" and "acid," and the bond morpheme "iciation," the meaning of which is roughly, "to make" or "the process of making." Using affixation, or the process by which new words are formed when bound morphemes are added at the beginning or end of a sentence, the two new lexemes came into existence. Not only does this process allow student of the English language to determine how the words were formed, but also what they mean. For instance, knowing the suffixes, or morphemes, of the words allows students to determine that the words must both mean "the making of" or "the process of" something. Pairing the base words "eutrophic" and "acid" with the suffixes will allow must to draw the conclusion that the words mean the process of "making of a chemical consistency" and "making more acidic.""
Abstract The paper discusses how, in his essay "Politics and the English Language", George Orwell focuses on the function of language as a powerful tool that can easily be abused. The paper then examines Jonathan Swift's "A Modest Proposal" that also illustrates how language can be manipulated and abused. The paper explains how Swift's projector proves Orwell's theory that we can manipulate language and, as a result, language becomes a major factor in human thought.
From the Paper "Language is more than words. Language is a tool that can be used in a variety of ways to achieve a variety of purposes. In his essay, "Politics and the English Language," George Orwell focuses on the function of language, emphasizing that it is a tool by which we can wield much power. He observes that language has been used as a creative tool and a manipulative tool. One of the first premises of Orwell's essay is that language and thought are connected. He writes that an "effect can become a cause, reinforcing the original cause and producing the same effect in an intensified form, and so on indefinitely" (Orwell 317). This influence works both ways. "If thought corrupts language, language can also corrupt thought" (324). This premise is powerful in that it not only suggests that thought can influence language but it emphasizes what we already know - that individuals can be influenced by language."
Abstract The paper provides a literature review on the evolution of language in humans and primates that explores why man is overtly superior to non-Homo sapiens. The paper reveals current findings that have demonstrated that chimpanzees can communicate verbally. The paper proposes a study that will identify brain activities occurring in chimpanzees and localize areas involved in the production of verbal language.
Outline:
Review of Related Literature
Objective of the Proposed Study
Study Design
From the Paper "Numerous studies have been conducted to further understand the unique ability of man to use language as a tool for communication. Common issues have been attempted to answer by developmental scientists and psychologist with regards to the evolution of language in humans and primates (Pinker and Jackendoff, 2004). One of these issues is to discern which components of language are learned from the environment, and which are innate in man and other species. The influence of one's external surroundings - education system, interaction with others, and ability to pick up a new language system - has been dissected. At the same time, the biological and neurological characteristics of man have been investigated to understand why man is overtly superior to non-Homo sapiens. These characteristics innate in man must be contributory to the development of a highly sophisticated language system."
Abstract This paper conducts a critical review of the work of Nuria Sagarra and Matthew Alba entitled "The Key Is in the Keyword: L2 Vocabulary Learning Methods with Beginning Learners of Spanish" published in the Modern Language Journal in July, 2006. The paper first explains that, in their article, Sagarra and Alba report a study, which investigated three methods of learning vocabulary and their effectiveness among 778 beginning second language (L2) students. After reviewing the article, the paper concludes that the significant finding is that the primary difference between the methods of learning was the result of the type of treatment instead of internal differences in the words used. Based on the article, the paper then applies the findings to the classroom by stating that the most beneficial way for teachers to help their students develop a stable, comprehensive vocabulary is to incorporate keywords into reading, listening and speaking tasks.
Table of Contents:
Introduction
Article Review
Cognitive Models and Lexical Processing
Depth Processing
Lexical Processing Enables Deeper Processing at Early Stages
Limitations in Previous Study Findings and Adjustments to Overcome Limitations
Rote Memorization, Semantic Mapping, and Keyword Mnemonics Explained
Associative Models
Comparison of the Three Methods for Vocabulary Learning
Differentiation of Mnemonic and Non-mnemonic Elaboration Techniques
Analysis of Article
From the Paper "Sagarra and Alba present as well as compare the three methods for learning vocabulary that have been stated including rote memorization, the keyword method and a non-mnemonic technique of semantic mapping. It is related that previous studies have attempted variations of the keyword method for the purpose of identifying the most effective application of this method. One group of studies made an examination of the impact of facilitation on keywords that were experimenter-provided versus those that were learner-generated"
Tags: vocabulary memorization, semantic mapping, mnemonics, time constraints
