Abstract The paper explores various studies that attempt to determine how children learn to speak and shows how in many cases, the rudiments of language development are started early, even in the first few months after birth. The paper notes that such studies are of interest to educators and parents, as well as those who are working toward the betterment of illnesses such as autism. The paper points out that although much has been learned about the interrelationship of language and behavior, much will not be determined until the study of the brain becomes more advanced.
From the Paper "How do children learn to speak? For decades, psychologists, anthropologists, philsophers and linguists have debated this question. The cognitive theory of learning, first theorized by Piaget in the mid-1950s concerns the development stages when babies and children acquire new ways of mentally representing information. Since then, a wide variety of different and competing ideas of this relationship have been proposed, which continue to stimulate a large body of research. Although the results of these studies have brought researchers closer to the "truths" behind language development, it will not be until the construct and activity of the brain is thoroughy understood that the final answers concerning language will be known."
Abstract This paper examines the origin of the 'F' word, how the word came to be and how it is used today in American culture. The paper discusses that there are various legends and claims regarding the origin of the 'F' word and while some claim that the word was derived from the language of the Vikings, others claim that the word was derived from an acronym. This paper explores that various sources that make claim to possess knowledge of the origin of the 'F' word.
Outline:
Objective
introduction
Urban Legends And Myths Of The 'F' Word
The French Claim To Origin Of The 'F' Word
Random House Historical Dictionary Of American Slang
Indo-European Root 'Peuk'
North-Sea Germanic Areal Form
In Depth-Analysis
Summary & Conclusion
From the Paper "Because of this, English archers would taunt the French by raising their middle fingers and exclaiming that they could still 'pluck yew' hence the four-letter word." (Wilton, 2004) According to Wilton, this specific legend was a pun and Wilton states: "It is doubtful that whoever came up with this howler meant for it to be taken seriously. But this joke has gained urban legend status thanks to the internet." Wilton relates that four letter words, such as the 'F' word."
Abstract This paper explains that, although there is a larger amount of evidence supporting the notion that human language develops from natural and inborn processes, socialization and learning is important to the development of language. The paper first describes the basic components of language, which are classified as content morphemes and grammatical morphemes. The paper then presents research to support both arguments that language is innate and that the development of human language is closely linked to the development and transformation of human cognition.
From the Paper "From day one, we seem naturally equipped to develop and explore language. When a new infant is born, he/she is immediately able to distinguish his/her mother's voice. Young infants start to babble at a very young age as if they are trying to communicate with one's caregivers. Amazingly enough, deaf children initially start to babble as well, but eventually stop verbal communication because they do not hear any feedback. An interesting aspect of language development is an infant's ability to be sensitive to all languages when under the age of 6 months."
Abstract This paper discusses the "Ebonics" of African Americans as a viable alternative dialect. It looks at the nature of dialect in general and its effects on social status and perceived levels of education, talent and achievement. The paper shows the importance of the study of Ebonics as it is a true expression of African-American pride, values and history.
From the Paper "The struggle to understand and recognize Ebonics represents, first and foremost, the need to understand the effects of the dialect on African-Americans and their place in American society. Various aspects of African-American English have been traced to West African patterns of speech, among these the use phrases like "you still in slavery," where the verb "to be" is conspicuously absent from the sentence. In fact such phrasing has been taken as a sign that African-Americans continue to occupy a place in American society similar to that which they occupied in the days of slavery. Nevertheless, the social stigma attached to the use of such speech patterns, even in early childhood, has been taken by others as a legitimate attempt to help young African-Americans to advance in the larger majority White society. Opponents of Ebonics claim that the dialect is hardly African at all, and represents nothing more or less than "poor language habits." By claiming a false African origin for the dialect, supporters are merely attempting to get around the dialect's deficiencies by resorting to assertions of Black pride. In other words, any move to de-legitimize such speech patterns is tantamount to disparaging African-American history and culture, another example of the relegation of African-American cultural norms to the very bottom of the social scale."
Abstract The paper analyzes W.J.T. Mitchell's essay "Word and Image", which explores the distinction between images and words. The paper comments on this essay, passage by passage, and concludes that it offers more questions than it does answers. The paper also points out that, although the essay does not offer us a definition of word and image, there may actually be no practical definition.
From the Paper "WJT Mitchell's status as a critic in the art world is impressive, and his writings about art are globally influential. His essay "Word and Image" is part of a definitive collection of essays, most of which define critical art terms. The critical art term that Mitchell defines here is "word and image." The first few paragraphs seem straightforward enough, and at first the essay seems to limit its scope to the challenges and limitations inherent in the task of describing images with words. However, Mitchell's prose soon becomes more and more complex as he deftly explains the illusory nature of defining such an intricate concept."
Abstract This paper examines the language acquisition of two children, A and G, who are each two years old. The paper places particular emphasis on their strategies for simplifying word-initial s+ consonant clusters. The paper also discusses noted deviations from adult forms, suggesting possible explanations to account for those deviations.
Outline:
Introduction
Evaluation of Data
Conclusion
From the Paper "Language acquisition is a complex and gradual process for children. The process works on two levels. Part of it is innate, and part is learned. As they advance developmentally, children absorb what they hear in their interactions with others, especially in their home environments. Phonological development is a gradual process during which speech patterns are first reproduced, and then eventually acquired. It is normal for mistakes, or phonological deviations, to be made during this process. Since young children are still developing their sound systems, their speech can at times be difficult to understand. Anyone who has tried to communicate with small children will have experienced this at some point. This is particularly true in very young children, specifically those under the age of five, since they have not yet mastered the ability to organize sound systems in the same way that adults do."
Abstract This paper examines and compares the link made between language and racism in Robert B. Moore's article "Racism in the English Language" with the link made in Anne Ishii's article "English as a Second Language". The paper relates that Moore's article demonstrates that racism is so deeply rooted in culture that it can be easily identifiable upon the analysis of a few linguistic structures whereas for Ishii, the main problem is one of perception: Once the mainstream culture adopts a self-centered perception of the other cultures, racism begins to infiltrate into its structure. In other words, according to Ishii, English is in itself employed as an emblem of the 'mainstream civilization' and the other cultures are 'different' simply because they speak English with an accent or make frequent confusions about words and expressions.
From the Paper "If perceived from the inside of the Japanese culture, the European heritage would certainly seem extremely exotic or different. Thus, the main problem is that of perception: once the mainstream culture adopts a self-centered perception of the other cultures, racism begins to infiltrate into its structure. Ishii establishes her argument on a critique of the film 'Memoirs of a Geisha.' The paper pertinently observes that the film is literally unintelligible since it proposes absurdly to use a Chinese cast which speaks in deliberately erroneous English."
Tags: self-evident, mainstream', culture, perception, unnaturally, different
Abstract The paper asserts that although language does show a sign of intelligence, the differences between animal and human language do not suffice for our views on intelligence. The paper challenges the way we attribute intelligence to the ability to speak and attempts to show how animal and human language are essentially very similar. The paper points out further that conditions such as strokes or retardation have the potential to effect language, but have no effect on test scores. The paper diasgrees with Descartes' belief that animals are machines and discusses John Searle's experiment known as "The Chinese Room". The paper concludes that our beliefs on language and its relevance to intelligence have many flaws and questions.
From the Paper "The complexity of our language and the basic acquisition of our ability to communicate is without a doubt a sign of intelligence. It is only with a human mind that we can understand the uniqueness of our grammar and the rules that govern the way we communicate with one another. Throughout research of our language and why it is that we began to speak in the first place, social hierarchy that places humans on the top has been constructed with all other species at the bottom. It is clear through our capabilities, whether they are evolved or innate, that there is a distinction between animal and human language. Since it is often thought that language itself is what defines us as humans (Pinker), it is our basis for the claim that we are most intelligent. However, are our abilities to speak and the structure of conventional rules enough to make this claim?"
Abstract The paper examines the role of language in the development of human nature, with particular reference to the function of thought. The paper shows that our nature is largely the consequence of the social interactions that we experience as we develop our lives and not the result of some wide ranging and all encompassing human nature. The paper goes on to to show how, while language is indeed an essential component in the production of thought, it is nonetheless incapable of explaining human development and outcomes in every instance.
From the Paper "What is it that makes who we are? Moreover, how can we account for the varied and differing actions of human beings and the general development of the human race as a whole? These are questions that have plagued academic authorities since the time of the ancient Greeks. Every academic discipline has in some measure or another attempted to explain and account for the essential features that make human beings distinct from other forms of life. In particular, sociologists have traditionally taken a central role in explaining the issues above. Above all, sociologists attempt to explain the world in which we live through the social actions and effects that we all encounter. 'No man is an Island' is certainly central to this conception. The society in which we live directly affects the manner of our development as a human being and thus can also affect out 'nature'."
Abstract The paper closely examines the words 'king' and tyrant' that were used for a ruler in European countries as well as 'sultan' and 'rajah' that were the names used in Turkey and Asian countries. The paper shows how although the four words all mean a non-elected ruler, each word has different origins and has undergone different semantic changes.
From the Paper "For thousands years ago, there had always been non-elected rulers of peoples throughout the world. Even in today, kings and queens still exist and rule in some countries such as the United Kingdom, Spain and Sweden. These monarchs symbolize the countries' glorious history where nobility and being "blue-blooded" were icons of superiority. Although today's kings and queens hardly have any power over their nations except for few Arab and Asian countries, most rulers throughout history had undeniable power over their people and the vestiges of ancient civilizations reflect that power (ex. the Tomb of Pharaoh). The rulers were sometimes thought to be gods or to have powers only gods may have. In different regions, cultures and times, the names used for the concept "rulers" vary and their meanings differ slightly. Further, the words used to describe those rulers experienced different semantic changes. King, tyrant, sultan and rajah are examples of these."
Abstract In this article, the writer notes that language is a complex symbiosis of verbal and nonverbal cues used to convey information within and across cultures. The writer then discusses that the needs for economy, for familiarity and for personal expression have together had the effect of enabling individuals to achieve a diversity of meanings and linguistic expressive tendencies within the context of a shared communication framework such as a language or dialect. Next, the writer presents an exploration of the way in which meanings and expressions may change when they are removed from the printed page. The writer concludes that factors such as context, the nature of the relationship between the conversant partners and general social conventions within a culture play a determinant role in the way that individuals choose both the information they disclose and the manner in which they disclose it.
From the Paper "This speaks to our instinctual use and comprehension of words which are created by the processes of blending and clipping. Word economy is a common trait of informal linguistic communication and even the word choice more commonly used in the business setting today, where there is a high premium on conciseness but linguistic decisions that are simultaneously comprehensible to a common denominator of recipients.
"This suggests much about the way that we appear to almost naturally understand such words. Their adoption as a natural consequence of the desires inherent in the process of human communication illustrates that they are not necessarily spontaneously produced on a whim by one inflective user. Rather, we may more accurately understand that such terms are reflective of some inherent need within the language. Whether the need is to express a new range of ideas within the concise context of a single word, as seems often to motivate blending or to convey information about one's self by suggesting through word choice a certain loose, off-the-cuff informality, it is clear that there are both conscious and unconscious forces at play in our choice of word economy."
Abstract In this article, the writer notes that social networking through such sites as MySpace and Facebook has become a popular and spreading interest in the United States. Such online contexts for community and group orientation and networking have originated in the U.S. and have generated remarkable success and innovative application there. The writer looks at how language barriers and cultural differences affect marketing efforts in different countries. The writer discusses that China is a market context where challenges are specific and dominant due both to the dramatic distinction between the Chinese language and Romantic or Latin-based tongues and due to China's isolated and distinctly defined cultural nature. The writer then discusses an approach to introducing a product like the iPod to Egypt, a country that is somewhat modernized but still characterized by many of the cultural distinctions of its region.
From the Paper "In both of these, we consider that there is a real and difficult obstruction for organizations seeking to establish a meaningful identity.
"In consideration of the example of Foster's beer, for one, we are given a narrative detailing a long and difficult process by which the Australian beer distributor was eventually able to penetrate the market. For Foster's, one of the biggest problems was its prior strategic dependence on its name and Australian identity, which are easily and charmingly conveyed in advertisement in America. In a non-English speaking market, this is a harder association to draw. "
Abstract The paper examines the features of universal human body language that can be completely unconscious to both the communicator and the recipient. The paper explains the phenomenon of mirroring and describes the nonverbal cues used by dating couples. The paper then shows why learning to interpret nonverbal communication is essential in the professions of sales, policing and nursing.
Outline:
Introduction
Universal Human Body Language
Mirroring Behavior and the Importance of Postures and Body Position
From the Paper "Like other animals, human beings have evolved patterns of body language to help them communicate with others. Because we rely so heavily on verbal communication, we tend not to notice it as consciously as spoken language except in more extreme circumstances such as fear or outright aggression. Nevertheless, human body language and other forms of nonverbal communication patterns provide considerable amounts of information about others (Gerrig & Zimbardo 2005)."
Abstract The paper examines the major theories of literacy to support the thesis that literacy can be used as a tool to separate and subjugate lower social classes of society. The paper focuses on the story of Frederick Douglas and explains how he learned to read and write. The paper explains how blacks were intentionally denied the tools of literacy that they needed to break free of the stereotypes and social status of inferiority. The paper concludes that Douglas' work is a culturally relevant way of writing history that provides us with a deeper understanding of what it meant to be a slave in early America.
Outline:
Douglas and the Slave's Perspective
Defining the Strategies that Douglas used to Read and Write
Conclusion
From the Paper "Theories differ on how people learn to read and write. The connection between reading and writing is one of the most debated topics in literary circles. However, the debate over this topic pales to the debate over the relationship between culture and literacy. Major theorists are divided into two groups of thought on this topic. The first argues that literacy is necessary for the advancement of culture and society. The other argues that literacy is independent of society and that they have little influence on each other."
This paper provides an analysis of grammar and writing style, focusing on grammar used in the article 'Meat Is Murder On The Environment' by Daniele Fanelli.
Abstract In this paper, Daniele Fanelli's July 18, 2007 article "Meat is Murder on the Environment," which was originally published in NewScientist Environment, is studied, and her use of grammar tested. The writer points out that by combining her ability to use not only correct, but also effective grammar with her innovative writing style, Fanelli has created an excellent persuasive piece. An analysis of Fanelli's words, nouns and noun phrases, verbs, clauses and clause types, grammar of discourse, and professional grammar, provides a comprehensive overview of the article. The writer concludes that by analyzing Fanelli's article, the many implications of grammar on writing style and the understandability of a work have become clear. Grammar is no longer for teachers and elementary school students, but for anyone who wants to make a professional impact.
Outline:
Introduction
Words
Semantic Representation
Form
Grammatical Category
Morphemes and Morphology
Nouns and Noun Phrases
Verbs
Clauses
The Grammar Of Discourse
Professional Contexts/ Conclusion
From the Paper "Because this article is of a scientific nature, the author leaves many opportunities for students of English to study morphemes and their importance to semantics or meaning. For instance, the first paragraph of the article presents two words that are rather difficult to understand: eutrophication and acidification. The two lexemes are formed using the base words "eutrophic" and "acid," and the bond morpheme "iciation," the meaning of which is roughly, "to make" or "the process of making." Using affixation, or the process by which new words are formed when bound morphemes are added at the beginning or end of a sentence, the two new lexemes came into existence. Not only does this process allow student of the English language to determine how the words were formed, but also what they mean. For instance, knowing the suffixes, or morphemes, of the words allows students to determine that the words must both mean "the making of" or "the process of" something. Pairing the base words "eutrophic" and "acid" with the suffixes will allow must to draw the conclusion that the words mean the process of "making of a chemical consistency" and "making more acidic.""
