Abstract This paper discusses the benefits of teaching infants a foreign language. It begins by discussing the prevalence of bi or tri-lingualism in the world. It then discusses if it is beneficial to know a foreign language. The paper goes on to discuss the advantages of specifically learning the foreign language while still young, particularly focusing on the cognitive effects on the brain.
Table of Contents:
Introduction
Knowing a Foreign Language
Advantages Knowing a Foreign Language
Learning a Foreign Language While Young
Cognitive Effects to the Brain
Conclusion
From the Paper "Teaching an infant with a foreign language may be a hard task. This entails perseverance and strong commitment from the teacher (or the parent). This will also require full understanding, not only of the language itself, but also of the needs of the infant. But this task is beneficial and will prove to be very useful as the infant grown old.
However, it should be noted that the success of teaching an infant to learn a foreign language lies on the hand of the educators. To them lies the secret of successfully teaching the child of their second language. If they know how to treat and teach a child (of barely less that 5 years of age, or even less), then it will not be a difficult task for the child to adopt very well on the said foreign language. It somehow goes like this... an educator, or the parents for that matter, initially teaches the child with the second language... and then the child will do the rest."
Abstract This paper takes a look at the word, 'scum'. According to the paper, the word 'scum' has various applications and definitions. The paper reviews the history of the word and discusses how 'scum' can be used as a noun, a verb or an adjective.
From the Paper "The zero-grade form sk - was suffixed to form sk -mo-. Its derivatives are skim, from the Old French excume or scum, meerschaum, from the Old High German sc m, also implying scum, and scum, from Middle Dutch sch m. All of the three mentioned derivatives come from Germanic sk maz meaning foam or scum, implied in "that which covers the water". The form sk - was also suffixed to sk -ro-. Its derivatives are obscure and chiaroscuro from the Latin obsc rus meaning "covered or dark". The prefix ob- in Latin means "away from". "
Tags: quote, definition, dirt, english, french, impurities, Scandinavian, german, latin
Abstract This paper discusses how, although controversial in nature, the field of language acquisition and production in other species has spawned research on apes and other animals that are thought to possess advanced cognitive functions. The paper shows that, while conclusive evidence agreed upon by even the majority of experts in this area has yet to emerge, the work to date has provided an interesting look into the communication and language structures of not only human language used by other species, but also their own native languages. This paper presents the literature in the field and frames it in the assumption that language is a cognitive system requiring specific characteristics for development and use.
From the Paper "What is language? Language is a method of organizing words to form coherent thoughts and facilitate communication, whereas simple communication includes not only these coherent thoughts but also emotions and nonverbal cues (Sternberg, 2004). The organization is key, as without it language falls into the realm of simple communication. Alternate definitions of language have posited that merely a means of communication is sufficient to apply the term language (Language, 2000), psychologists generally avoid this lay definition and include additional complexity requirements to the definition. While some have argued that mere language alone is not sufficient to explain our unequaled success as a species and our unique thought processes (Bickerton, 1990), many theorists believe it to be vital element distinguishing ourselves from other species. "
Tags: parrot, chimpanzees, gardner, pepperberg, development
Abstract This paper explains that Euskera was once spoken in Aragon and West Catalonia as far back as the 7th century and, in the 9th and 10th centuries, through mass migration, it reached south of Alava. The author points out that the decline of this language was partly due to decisions made concerning the supremacy of Spanish during the Bourbon period of the 18th Century, which stigmatized Euskera as being only suitable for farmers and peasants whereas Spanish was used exclusively in education and instruction. The paper concludes that Euskera, the Basque language, is almost without monolingual speakers but whether it is doomed extinction is debatable. The paper includes some long quotations.
Table of Contents:
Introduction
An Historical Overlook of Euskera
Spanish and French Attitudes Concerning the Basque Language
Protecting Euskera
Conclusion
From the Paper "Industrialization also played its part during the 19th century. The need for workers resulted in mass immigration and saw the arrival of so many monolingual Spanish speakers that their numbers far outweighed those of the Basque speakers. The fact that the Spanish speakers moved into several areas where the language had already been lost and the fact that the Franco government prohibited the use of Euskera, both helped to ensured that the language would become endangered."
Abstract The paper provides a definition of psycholinguistics and describes the first steps taken in its development and the significant discoveries made in subsequent stages until today. The paper explains that psycholinguistics examines the psychology of language and concerns the study of the psychological processes involved in language acquisition. The paper concludes that it is reasonable to assert that the existing body of knowledge concerning psycholinguistics will continue to grow in the future.
Outline:
Introduction
Review and Discussion
Conclusion
From the Paper "Although different sources credit different researchers with its development, all signs point to Noam Chomsky as one of the early proponents of psycholinguistics as it is applied today. In his book, The Psychology of Language: From Data to Theory, Harley (2001), reports that the history of psycholinguistics is a relatively recent one. "Although it is often traced to a conference held in . . . 1951, the approach was certainly used before then. . . . If we place the infancy of modern psycholinguistics sometime around the American linguist Noam Chomsky's (1959) review of Skinner's book Verbal Behavior, its adolescence would correspond to the period in the early and mid-1960s when psycholinguists tried to relate language processing to transformational grammar" (12)."
Abstract This paper is a two-part discussion involving the interpersonal form of the communication experience. The first part of the paper deals with a theoretical and critical discussion involving the following statement by K. Miller: "Long-term relationships are often marked by tension, development, conflict and growth: processes mediated by communicative interaction within ongoing relationships". The second part of the paper concentrates on the statement by W. Fisher regarding storytelling as a basic human activity.
Outline:
Introduction
The Palo Alto Group
Important Concepts
Feedback
Equifinality
Logical Types
Rules
Dialectics
Push-Me-Pull-You Dialectics
Important Dialectical Concepts
Three Dialectics of Relationships
Connection Autonomy Dialectic
Certainty-Uncertainty Dialectic
Openness-Closeness Dialectic
Storytelling
Narrative Theory
Narrative Worldview
Narrative Rationality
South African Stories
Conclusion
From the Paper "According to Miller (2005), positive feedback is behaviour that allows for change to take place in the relative system, while negative feedback is behaviour that allows for consistency and therefore a lack of change in the system. This consistency of the status quo regarding the system was named 'homeostasis' by Jackson (1957). Neither positive nor negative feedback can be characterised as consistently good as the merit of the feedback depends on the individual case of the behaviour. This means that if the status quo of a family relationship were that of an abusive or violent nature, positive feedback to change the situation would be ideal. However, in another case, the status quo of a similar relationship in another family may be loving and nurturing, and therefore would benefit from negative, as opposed to positive feedback so as to preserve the status quo of that relationship."
Abstract This paper takes a look at the history and evolution of language. The paper discusses the various factors that influenced the changes in our language. According to the paper, one of the biggest influences on our modern language, was the development of the computer and related technologies. The paper further discusses how words are adopted from other languages to become an accepted part of another tongue.
From the Paper "The next huge change in language was also due to technological change, but instead of printed books, it was a great change in our environment. Technological development was accelerated by the development of the personal computer. All this "new stuff" had to have names. Sometimes, a new name might simply be a new meaning for an old word. One such example is the word "bug". In the 1940s the only computers in use were huge machines: Eniac, Univac etc. These machines were made using vacuum tubes, some of which burned out every time the computer was used. People on roller skates would replace the burned out tubes after every use. One day, the machine stopped working, and no burned vacuum tubes could be found. A concerted search of the entire machine turned up a large moth fried on the wires behind one circuit panel. That is how the word "bug" became a problem in computer functioning, both mechanical and digital. (AskOxford.com 2006)"
Abstract The paper examines an article about the phonological and conceptual activation in speech comprehension and an article about the activation of offset-embedded words. The paper also examines an article about the role of prosodic boundaries in the resolution of lexical embedding in speech comprehension and an article about electro-physiological evidence for early contextual influences during spoken-word recognition. The last article is about the cascaded nature of lexical selection and integration in auditory sentence processing.
From the Paper "This article focuses on the process of understanding as it relates to separate lexical representations of sound and meaning. The phonological and conceptual representations in language have been separated, as comprehension are connected to these different concepts separately. In explaining these concepts, the article distinguishes between word representation in the mental lexicon and the lexical candidates for recognizing utterances. When the hearer is the presented with running speech with few clear cues to word boundaries, a mechanism is needed to determine the best sequence in terms of the input. In this way the correct utterance is determined by competition."
Abstract This paper discusses the influence of Native-American languages on American English. It begins by discussing the variety, origin and roots of Native-American languages. It then discusses early contact between settlers and Native-Americans and the evidence that has been found to suggest that American English was influenced by this contact, particularly the names of places names that were named after the tribes that occupied the location.
Table of Contents:
The Lumbee
What Does this Mean for Native American Words in American English?
From the Paper "In conclusion, tribal languages are typically spoken only in places where tribal members are isolated. However, it is doubtful if there are any areas left where the tribal language is spoken exclusively. Typically the tribal language exists alongside English. As the number of native speakers diminishes, so does the usage of that language until it is eventually extinguished. This has been the fate of many native languages. The remnants that remain in American English are testimony to their existence. In some cases they are one of the last remaining references to their existence. The study of native American words in the English language gives us a glimpse into many ancient languages that are long forgotten and can give us clues to the cultures of these people as well. The study of Native language remnants is a testimony to the tribes and peoples that once represented the dominant culture in North America."
Abstract The paper provides an extensive literature review on the topic of communication among apes and discusses how it seems clear that apes can acquire some form of language and communicate with humans. The paper reveals that there is also evidence that apes may have a form of language of their own by which they communicate with each other. The paper discovers that apes would not normally acquire such capabilities on their own, but they can be trained to use language and respond to its meaning.
Outline:
Introduction
Review of Literature
Conclusion
From the Paper "Research has been conducted for a long time on questions about the origin of language and how human beings first learned to speak. More recently, research has shifted to various primate studies as to whether or not other primates have what can be considered a language and in some cases whether apes can be taught to understand language and even to speak. Some of the early experiments in this area were seen as promising by some and as self-delusion by others, but the research continued and has produced a number of interesting results that may bring us closer to understanding the genesis of language and how widespread language is in the animal kingdom."
Abstract This paper discusses the situation in the United States for English-language learner (ELL) and English as a second language (ESL) students. It particularly describes the effects of a lack of primary English language skills on the students in primary and secondary grades. It also discusses the effects of these students receiving much of their instruction from content-area teachers or para-educators. The paper offers brief recommendations to improve the situation for ESL and ELL students.
From the Paper "As a result of those policies and practices, many ELLs receive much of their instruction from content-area teachers or para-educators who have not had appropriate preparation or professional development to address their second-language development needs or to make content instruction comprehensible. This situation hinders their academic success. Not only do teachers need more preparation to work with ELLs but they also need to know the type of instruction that is most effective for these students, a population whose growing numbers requires that educators take a serious look at their instructional programs. Therefore, it is evident that the best course of action is preparation. With proper preparation and understanding, teachers will be better suited to aid ELLs/ESL's. (Echevarria, Short & Powers, 2006)"
Abstract This academic paper examines contemporary linguistic theory, with a focus on grammaticalization in the development of language. This analysis is made for both language form and in acquisition by individuals. The author challenges the idea that language is structural. The paper addresses this issue by evaluating ideas that view grammaticalization as an epiphenomenon of language.
Outline
Abstract
Introduction
Epiphenomenon
Grammaticalization Defined
Grammaticalization as Epiphenominon
Works Cited
From the Paper "In a sense the epiphenomenon of grammaticalization, as many would claim is the psychological response to the neurologically fixed brain functioning that creates workable mental shortcuts through the utilization of commonly occurring rules that are unique to individual languages and to some extent people. The brain functions to save the individual undue work in forming language, when common rules are oft repeated and in so doing, as the theory goes it leaves the individual capable of the creation of language in an easy almost non-thinking manner. (Anderson, and Lightfoot 162) Yet, when an individual attempts, once these shortcuts have been set, to learn a unique language, a variation of ones own language, say modern English as compared to Middle English or even the English spoken in another country in the present world, he or she is stymied by these shortcuts as they would need to be eradicated or altered (which theory claims is difficult if not impossible to do) to think in and become fluent in another language. (Healy 3)"
Abstract This work reviews historical and recent literature related to 'free word order' languages, or those, which use 'scrambling' in sentence structure. These terms relate specifically to the placement of nouns and verbs within a sentence. The social theory of language acquisition is reviewed as well as cultural influences on language acquisition specifically related to 'free word order' language structure. Word order in various languages is examined and recent studies are reviewed.
Outline:
Objective
Introduction
Socio-Cultural Formation of Speech and Language
Previous Study in Language Acquisition
Differentiation between 'verb salient' and 'noun salient' Languages
Word Order in the Various Languages
Non-Configurationality in Languages
Computer-generated Processing of Languages
Summary
Bibliography
From the Paper " 'Free word order' languages are those in which the structure of a sentence is constructed loosely in relation to the placement of nouns and verbs. The writer notes in the research process that there are many and various explanations and theories surrounding the structure or lack of structure in the free word order languages. Grammatical encoding has never been quite as relevant as in the present as computer-generated language translation is in use frequently in the lives of many. Communication barriers presented are evident in the confused communications and specifically between languages such as the English language with its formally structured sentence use of nouns and verbs and the languages of Korean and Japanese both 'free word order' languages.. "
Tags: linguistics, word, order, Asian, languages, mixed, constructions, language, acquisition, free, word, order, scrambling
This paper argues that the internationalization of American English as the global language may be a triumph for the U.S.A., but it is a threat to the rest of the world.
Abstract This paper explains that the elastic characteristic of American English has made it the lingua franca of globalization, thus enabling people of different nationalities to make each other understood and do business. The author points out that American English is a crossbreed of languages with numerous origins, including Celtic, Norse, Germanic, Romance, Spanish and Latin; therefore, the language sounds familiar even without any previous exposure to it. The paper relates that there is no doubt that this spread of American English has political underpinnings, the same way that globalization was oriented politically when the rich and powerful nations first embarked on it over 100 years ago.
Table of Content
Triumph for America
Globalization
Fall of French
English as a Threat
From the Paper "The spread of English as a global language is actually traced to the heyday of the British Empire in the 19th century. When "the sun never set on the British Empire," the colonized countries that practically spanned four continents learned the Queen's English as the British colonizers taught them the rudiments of international trade and civilization. This was the same native British language that in much earlier times was spoken only by the "lower class people" of England since the elite conversed exclusively in Latin, French or Greek. This was also the same ancestral tongue of the Americans who nonetheless evolved their own brand of English and did their own spreading of the language as they established their own colonial domain."
Tags: flexible, familiar, resistance, political, french
Abstract In this article, the writer discusses that the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) makes it imperative upon the schools to overcome the cultural barrier to English Language Learning (ELL) by establishing a means of communication with the parents. The writer suggests that schools could invite the parents of immigrant families to such school activities as classroom demonstrations of different culture or presentations of awards for children's accomplishments. In communicating and coordinating with parents, it is suggested that the schools use the immigrants' language and may thus need to hire special translators for the purpose. The writer notes that a common perception among immigrant parents is that English is the language of a rich and powerful postindustrial society, whereas their native language is less impressive and commands less respect. The writer concludes that language learning, according to experts, is an interactive activity as dependent on social context as it is on cognitive transfer.
Outline:
Introduction
Legal Issues
School Community
Language Issues
From the Paper "English language learners are children of newly arrived immigrants in the US, refugees from war-torn countries or immigrants with a language other than English spoken at home. Whatever the circumstances that drove these families to make the US their new home, their children have even varying levels of education in their primary language, such that their ability to learn English fast and efficiently as their chief means of assimilating into American society becomes an extremely challenging task for the US school system. This shows in national and state surveys indicating that ethnic and racial minority children are the most at-risk group in social institutions, with the most significant academic underachievement, high poverty rates, high teen pregnancy rates, low skill levels, and low-paying employment opportunities. The projection is that by 2015 over 50 percent of all students in K-12 public schools across the US will be ELL students, boosting the number of this school population that has the highest dropout rate and the lowest ranking in academic achievement and expectations. The phenomenon necessarily speaks ill of the American public school system."
