Abstract This paper discusses Thomas Kuhn's famous work, "The Structure of Scientific Revolutions," in an attempt to trace the connections between the theory of scientific paradigm creation and shift and the development of modern and postmodern thinking in the arts. This particularly refers to Kuhn's influence on post-structural philosophy and language theory. The paper traces some of these connections and indicates to what extent Kuhn's major work has been influential and connected to the modern artistic and linguistic movements. The paper contends that, in order to show the linkage clearly between Kuhn's theories and modern art, his work cannot be understood outside of the broader historical context in which it was written.
From the Paper "What Kuhn hypothesized in The Structure of Scientific Revolutions was that scientific thought and theory did not progress in a consecutive linear fashion. New concepts or theoretical paradigms came about in a non-sequential and sudden fashion and were not coterminous or even necessarily theoretically related to the previous scientific paradigm. The following is a very simplistic outline of his theory but it encompasses the central tenets and aspects that made his work so influential. Firstly, science had been based on presumptions of certainty and objective infallibility. The central concept that characterized classical science was that it was a normative and sequential progression of knowledge and understanding of reality."
Tags: post-structural, philosophy, language, theory
Abstract This paper examines how, in "Wittgenstein on Rules and Private Language,",Saul Kripke reconsiders Wittgenstein's writing on rule-following and private language. It discusses Kripke's interpretation of Wittgenstein in terms of the 'paradox' and the private language argument and looks at what Kripke views as the skeptical problem within philosophical investigations with his proposed skeptical solution. It also distinguishes between what Kripke's interpretation of Wittgenstein's writing is and Wittgenstein's argument itself.
From the Paper "Kripke attempts to quell foreseeable objections to his sceptical problem by employing a further rule, counting, as an instruction on how to perform addition in new cases. This leads to infinite regress, since any new rule that I employ in giving myself instruction on addition will only result in questions about this new rule itself. It would be impossible to know if my past or present intentions or behaviour correspond with how I learned this new rule, used it in the past, and intend to use it in future instances. A new instructive rule would be needed after that, and this cycle would continue ad infinitum: "Rules for interpreting rules don't get us any further." This problem does not apply to mathematical cases alone. In language, any word I use can be said to have an alternative interpretation or use."
Abstract This paper examines how a multi-lingual and socio-culturally divided country as South Africa can benefit by having English as a lingua franca. It looks at how standard South African English does not need to be the English of white, middle-class mother-tongue speakers and how, instead, it can be the language which unifies all South Africans, empowering those who need power most.
From the Paper "Most - previously mainly monolingual - European countries have shifted to English as the lingua franca. English is no longer a foreign language in most EU member states. The trading capital of Europe is Brussels, which is situated in Belgium. This is a multilingual country which has Dutch, German and French as official languages, but where English is the language of communication and trade. At the same time, all Belgians retain their mother tongue, whether it be French, Dutch or German. Most Belgians nowadays learn English as a second language, and one of the other official languages as a third language. The same could be implemented in South Africa. If taught according to the system of additive bilingualism, a L1 Xhosa speaking child, would have its primary education in Xhosa, and learn English as a second language."
Abstract This paper looks at the argument presented by James Baldwin in his essay, "If Black English Isn't a Language, Then Tell Me, What Is?". The paper discusses the logical soundness of the author's case by examining his line of reasoning and his use of evidence. Paying attention to writing style, structure of the argument, evidence provided, and what is inferred by his use of tone, this paper examines Baldwin's message.
From the Paper "The argument comes down to the issue of experience. Without experience language cannot be powerful. Where does this leave Black Language? He appeals to the reader by providing an example. He worries that English will remain white even after the education of black children. Does this halt the emergence of Black English? "A child cannot be taught by anyone whose demand, essentially, is that the child repudiate his experience, and all that gives him sustenance, and enter a limbo in which he will no longer be black" (Baldwin, par. 10). Baldwin argues it does but that Black Language continues to evolve anyway."
An analysis of Michael Breen's metaphor of the classroom from his paper "The Social Context for Language Learning: English Language Teaching in its Social Context - A Reader".
Abstract This paper attempts to briefly summarise the main points of Breen's paper and evaluate his metaphor of the classroom as an experimental laboratory in the light of the author's recent work with ELT programmes in government primary schools in S.E. Asia.
From the Paper "Chinese culture deems the schoolteacher as all-important, the fountain of all knowledge & worthy of respect. School children stand when the teacher enters the classroom & bow when greeting them. Everything the teacher says is written down & chanting, drilling and dictation in EFL lessons are the order of the day. Large class sizes, (typically 38 - 45 students per class) conspire against inclusive learning or the teacher taking much notice of learning styles or attitudes."
Abstract Both Confucianism and Taoism hold strikingly differing positions on the importance and significance of language. This paper shows that, while this conflict may initially seem purely academic, these positions form the foundation of their ideologies, influencing subsequent positions on every aspect of life, right up to the correct way to lead a nation.
From the Paper "Thus, the accuracy of language serves as a foundation for all other abilities, including the acquisition of knowledge and leadership. This foundation should be solid and strong, without embellishment, and without exaggeration. Confucius often displays exquisite care in his own language, especially when he is asked whether or not a specific person fits a certain title, such as "ren" or "scholar." He is also conscious of his overall choice of words and tone: "At court, when speaking with officers of lower rank, he was pleasant and affable; when speaking with officers of upper rank, he was formal and proper." His own care, and the distain with which he frequently refers to those who use fanciful language or who cannot back up their speech with actions, demonstrates his advocacy of speech as a concrete, firm resting place for ideas. "Words," he explains, "should convey their message, and leave it at that.""
Abstract This paper discusses the significant issue of learning English as a second language in the California elementary school system. The paper contends that ensuring that all California students learn both English and academic content has proved to be a challenging task, and there are many opinions regarding the most appropriate means of achieving this goal. The paper examines some of these opinions.
From the Paper "Research indicates that almost a quarter of the kindergarten through twelfth grade students in California cannot function academically in English, and thus have been termed "English Language Learners (ELL) (E-Source Online, 2005)." The number of students who still need to learn English has more than doubled in the past ten years (E-Source Online, 2005). Not all of them are immigrants, as some were born as American citizens to parents who are not fluent in English. Although nearly 40 percent are in Los Angeles County, the impact of the increase in non-English speaking pupils affects schools just about everywhere in the state (E-Source Online, 2005). Two-thirds of the current English language learners are in grades K-6, and the other third are in grades seven through twelve. The educational needs of the younger children who must learn to read as well as learn a new language must be addressed in the most effective way possible."
Abstract This paper explains that the two most common cognitive models for the interaction between technology, people and culture are Formalist/Humanist and Cyborg/Post-Humanist. The author believes that the Post-Humanist/cyclical model is superior to the linear models because the idea behind this model is that there can be no set cycle to human/ technological interaction; any number of interactions are possible and they can go in any direction. The paper relates that the three main reasons people use the writing technologies such as word processing are habit, convenience and availability. Charts.
From the Paper "Communications technologies affect our social relations and cultural values. Often new technologies distance us from direct communication with each other. For instance, a phone call is only an auditory communication, which cuts out body language. Instant messaging contains only the words a person wishes to convey, cutting out tone of voice and other auditory cues. Email is even further removed, because it is so much less interactive. There is little possibility for instance for a heated dialog or a a quick two way discussion. The communication becomes less real, more distant and therefore arguably we believe less that there is another human being there and act accordingly... perfect example would be flames and porn ads. In one-on-one interaction people don't have the protection of anonymity that they do in an email or forum posting."
Tags: cognitive, formalist, posthumanist, cyclical, linear
This paper discusses the impact of the multilevel group classroom and the materials used to teach English and the problems of deculturation after adopting English as a main language in the Singapore culture.
Abstract This paper explains that, through language, people formulate and express their thoughts, suggesting that learning a second language is a complex task, not simply a matter of learning a system of rules for linking sounds and meanings. The author believes that bilingual children in Singapore should be encouraged to speak their first language and should be assisted to learn English as their second language because the government and society put constant pressure on children to master English to survive economically. The paper relates that materials used in teaching multilevel and age group children must be authentic developmentally and age-appropriate and be related to their prior experience in learning English as a second language.
Table of Contents
Introduction
Multilevel and Multi Age Group
Recommendations for ESL Teachers
Deculturation
Recommendations for ESL Teachers
Conclusion
From the Paper "When teaching TESOL along with the first language, teachers should keep in mind some important factors. They should carry out effective practices such as simplifying the language used, incorporating a variety of learning styles as different children learn differently though their aim is to learn English. Teachers should prepared to give some extra time to process the answer and the questions being asked. Educators should remember not to correct grammar constantly as these children are learning English as a second language compared to their first. Children will get frustrated and be hesitant to speak if they are constantly being corrected. Instead, model the correct English structure to the child. For example, if a child incorrectly says, "He no giving to me the paper." The teacher could model the correct structure, while clarifying meaning: "He didn't give you the paper?" "
Abstract This general overview of Wallace Stevens' work, introducing his individual volumes of poetry, book-by-book, highlights the major points of his poetics without the usual associative amalgam of theme, form, diction, imagery, symbolism and belief that complicates most surveys of his poetry. The paper explains that the volumes appeared as separate collections, but the Stevens criticism and scholarship invariably commingles them as if they were parts of a simultaneously generated whole. This book-by-book overview clarifies the poetic perspective and suggests revisiting his collections with a fresh modular approach.
From the Paper "Wallace Stevens' poetic development began with his apprentice poems published under pseudonyms in the Harvard Advocate at the turn of the century, but it was not until more than twenty years later that his elegant style and ambiguous motifs detonated into the flashy modernism of Harmonium (1923). The first change of style was drastic; he jettisoned the conventional sonnet, absorbed imagism, experimented with semi-open forms and, by liberating his style, he liberated also his sense of the bizarre, comical, and relentlessly aesthetic. Even between the brief lyrics and the deft prosody of the longer poems, Stevens' style invariably shifts to accommodate his tenets about the axis of imagination and reality. This overview looks at those shifts book-by-book."
Abstract This report focuses on differences between the Russian and English languages in terms of word and object meanings, direct translations, sayings, rules in grammar and other critical lexical rules such slang and idiom use.
Introduction
History of Russian in America
Lexicography
Semasiology
Russian Structure
Translation by Dictionary
Conclusion
From the Paper "The actions of Post World War II Soviet Union and World War II itself were major reasons for Russian becoming a common course in American colleges. Prior to 1940, there were less than twenty universities in America offering Russian language programs and less than fifty percent of those had a true Russian/Slavic department. Other tell-tale signs of the popularity of Russian in American schools can be demonstrated by the fact that there were only three Russian doctoral programs at the time of post World War II Europe. However, relations with the Soviet Union grew as a result of the war which also had the dramatic affect of increasing an interest in the Russian language. The war therefore increased the number of universities in the United States offering Russian to over one hundred ninety in the 1950's."
Abstract This study explores elementary Arabic heritage students' use of English as a first language (L1) to learn Arabic as a second language (L2). Far from being restricted to "good language learners" or certain corners of academia, L2 acquisition and learning occurs in a wide variety of settings. The literature review is divided into three major parts. The first part is a concise history of Arab immigration to the United States. The second part is a short description of the Arabic language, its origins and characteristics. The third section of the literature review explores previous studies and research of the manner in which L1 supports the learning and acquisition of L2.
The basic hypothesis that is tested is as follows: If the students retrogress as they use their first language to learn the second one, it is clear that there is interference in the long run. However, if the students show overall progress in the long run as they use the first language to learn the second one, there is no significant interference. The results of the study predict that students will show overall progress as they use the first language to learn the second one. Finally, the study results have significant implications for future research in languages and teaching methods.
Abstract
Introduction
Literature Review
Part I. Historical Background Surrounding the Arab Immigration
Part II. The Arabic Language
Arabic Language and Identity
Part III. Use of a First Language (L1) to Support the Learning and Acquisition of a Second Language (L2)
Brief Historical Background
Second Language Learners
Mismatch Hypothesis
The Natural Order Hypothesis
The Input Hypothesis
Environmentalist Theory
The Threshold Theory
Underlying Proficiency Hypothesis
Analysis of Literature Review
Arguments against L1 & L2 Learning
Significance of the Study
Data Collection
Study Participants
Methodologies
Procedure
Scheduling
Presentation of Analysis of Results and General Summary of Findings
Interview Analysis
Importance of the Study Results
Conclusion
From the Paper "Finally, there remain as many questions as answers, such as whether English will ultimately take over advanced education, as well as serving for international communication. Additionally, will the status of Arabic change, will its official role be implemented, and will the Arabic minority maintain their language? It remains to be seen whether language policy and planning are able to effect such a complex situation, whether language decisions can have effects on the social and political context, or whether they are in fact driven completely by external political and economic forces (Spolsky & Shohamy, 1997). We know that the linguistic repertoire of a country is a reflection of a myriad of political, demographic, cultural, religious and economic factors (Spolsky & Shohamy, 1997).
A review of the related research and proposed study reveals that unraveling the sociocultural and political influences on the second language learner is no small task. In addition, there is tremendous variation in the contexts within which both individuals and groups acquire a second language ("The Diversity Kit," 2002). Educators face the challenge of understanding those contexts, what motivates individuals, the relationship between first and second languages, and the academic environment, as well as the different demands placed on the second language learner in a classroom setting ("The Diversity Kit," 2002). Some researchers have posited that teachers understanding of the second language acquisition process will guide their instructional strategies toward ways to accommodate second language learners in their various developmental sequences. "
Abstract This paper claims that in discussing various seizure disorders, a common thread in much current research concerns communications issues. The paper contends that as a measure of impairment following head injury, concomitant with head injury or any other focal neural deficits, it is apparent that language is a key element. The paper examines the effects of various brain injuries and attendant physical factors such as aphasia and focal neurological deficit for all age groups, from early childhood to old age. The paper explores the reason behind the use of language, its acquisition, delay or impairment as the tool most often used to make assessments.
Outline
Abstract
Introduction
General Studies
Neurological Factors in Language Acquisition
Head Injury Studies
From the Paper "Maratsos and Matheny conducted studies to develop information abut language specificity and elasticity related to various neurological conditions. They devoted an enormous amount of time and effort to an exhaustive investigation, based on their hypothesis that "Language is currently the highest human mental function for which faculty-specific biological programming seems plausible (Fodor 1983, quoted by Maratsos and Matheny 1994). They drew into their investigation commentary from other disciplines, notably concepts developed by Noam Chomsky, who stressed "the putative independence of language as a functioning mental faculty" and Fowler who proposed that "one cannot conduct language development research without at least acknowledging the hypothesis that language is acquired, processed, and represented independently of other cognitive domains" (Maratsos and Matheny 1994). "
Abstract This paper presents a review of literature on the role of motivation in second or foreign language learning. It explains that motivation is divided into two basic types to integrate into the target language community. It shows how motivation is comprised of three primary elements: Efforts: Time invested in study of the language and learner drive; Desire: How much proficiency in the language is wanted by the learner; and Effect: Emotional response of the learner in relation to language study. It defines motivation as the learner's orientation with regard to the goal of learning a second language.
Abstract
Purpose
Literature Review
ESL Model
Linguistic and Non-Linguistic Outcomes
Summary & Conclusion
From the Paper "Integrative motivation has been found in studies (Taylor, Meyunard and Theault, 1977; Ellis, 1997; Crookes et al 1991) to sustain long-terms success when learning a second language. Stated is that because motivation is a critical factors in L2achievement and for this very reasons identification of the type and combination of motivation that is key in the successful acquisition of a second language while simultaneously viewing motivation "as one of a number of variables in an intricate model of interrelated individual and situational factors which are unique to each language learner." (Norris-Holt, 2003)"
Abstract The pros and cons of bilingual education continue as an argued debate across the United States. Unfortunately, much of the information on which people base their opinion is not correct. Numerous studies conducted over the past three decades show that bilingual education has been an effective educational tool. This paper shows that educators and other bilingual specialists are now also looking into other methodology, such as two-way or dual immersion, that can enhance the basic bilingual curriculum.
From the Paper "Schools are finding that language development works both ways. Many Native American children, for example, have forgotten or have never known their original languages. So that the languages are not forgotten, kindergarten students learn everything from colors to numbers to animal names in Cherokee. Students are called by their native Indian names and speak in Cherokee for most of the day. These kindergartners are in the first Cherokee-immersion class in a U.S. public school. By teaching kids Cherokee and not just English, Lost City School in Oklahoma is working to help save a dying language."
