From the Paper ""The Black Cat" by Edgar Allen Poe is a grotesque short story of a man's conscience. ?The Black Cat combines several themes that fascinated Poe such as reincarnation, perversity, and retribution. This story also carried an implied theme in the superstitious implications of this man's downfall. In this story Poe keeps very strongly to the theme of perversity and superstitions to illustrate the strange conditions that led to the crimes of this "happy man" especially fond of animals? (Poe 103). The theme of superstition is found to be a background motivation to the events and actions performed in the story. Towards the beginning of the story it is first mentioned to us that his wife always tells him "all black cats [are] witches in disguise" (Poe 103). The narrator also mentions that the name of the cat was Pluto. Pluto in "Greek and Roman mythology was the god of the dead and the ruler of the underworld" (Womack 5). The use of this name leads the reader to believe that the cat is somehow responsible for the death that is caused by the narrator himself. This is where the reader is first introduced to the fact that the events of this story could be caused by some superstition and not coincidence alone."
Tags: allen, analysis, critical, edgar, poe, themes, literature, Black Cat
Abstract Second Language Acquisition is a field of inquiry that abounds in theories, while at the same time no single approach has adequately explained how language acquisition takes place. One reason for this might be that linguists interested in SLA have been trained in different disciplines, such as linguistics, psycholinguistics, sociolinguistics and neurolinguistics. The paper explains that, naturally, they have approached SLA from very different perspectives and treat all the variables involved in the learning process differently. The situation appears to be very confusing and frustrating. All the present theories, hypotheses, and models are all preliminary work done toward the ultimate goal of a true theory. The paper shows that in this sense, the different approaches taken by linguists and researchers are never worthless. They have uncovered bits and pieces of the whole complexity of language acquisition. Hopefully, the continuing and combined efforts made by linguists and researchers will lead to the ultimate success of establishing the true theory in language acquisition as well as in SLA.
From the Paper "Linguistics is one of the newest fields of scientific inquiry. It was developed into an independent discipline of social science in the United Sates first "as an offshoot of anthropology" in the first half of the twentieth century in an attempt to investigate into the disappearing American indigenous languages (Lakoff, 2000, p. 2-3). Traditionally, it has been concerned with the analysis of language, namely its phonology, morphology and syntax. Following this tradition, Norm Chomsky in the 1950s put forward his milestone transformational generative grammar (TGG), which assumed "an ideal speaker-listener, in a completely homogeneous speech-community" unaffected by any external factors in his exploration of the Universal Grammar (UG), the general rules of language (Chomsky, 1965, p.3). This is basically an asocial or theoretical view in linguistic studies as opposed to the social view which claims knowing a language also means "knowing how to use that language"(Wardhaugh, 2002, p.3) in social contexts. Adopting either or both of the two views, linguistics and researchers alike have postulated a multitude of theories, approaches, and models in the inquiry into the nature of language and language acquisition, which appear to be conflicting ones fighting against one another."
Abstract This paper focuses on facts and statistics surrounding America's growing problem of illiteracy. The author discusses the major causes of illiteracy and the numbers of illiterates today. The author then presents some solutions to solve the problem.
From the Paper "?Call 1-800-ABC-DEFG; Hooked on Phonics worked for me.? Almost everyone has heard the commercial that uses this motto, Hooked on Phonics. Children of all ages tell how Hooked on Phonics helped them to read. For skeptical parents there is a money back guarantee if their children do not improve at least a letter grade on their next report card. Obviously something is wrong in America if fewer and fewer children are being taught how to read. Granted many children can read, but there is still little or no reading comprehension. Illiteracy is a never-ending cycle in America".
Abstract The paper shows that when we think about communication, we think about the spoken word and that our thoughts are always about the words people use and their fluency of speech. Yet, at the same time, we are also taking in information from nonlinguistic sources. The author notes that people's mannerisms, clothing, and appearance are also important, as well as their tone of voice. Researches have estimated that, in face-to-face communication, as much as 90 percent of the social meaning may be carried in the nonverbal message and that facial appearance and response may contribute more to our meaning of their message than all their words. The paper explores the importance of both types of communication and how they are put across.
From the Paper "As popularly used, language refers to a system of words. This development is not surprising, since words distinguish human communication from that of lower animals. Words, as symbols, usually convey information in a quite deliberate, no instinctive way. For this reason, language is sometimes treated as a set of verbal symbols."
Abstract The paper defines a cochlear implant as a device which converts sound waves into electric signals and thus allows the hearing impaired to hear at a greater level than a hearing aid provides. The paper discusses the effects that cochlear implants have on childhood development, focusing on children from one to four years of age. The paper explores the issues of speech recognition/language, academic concerns, social ramifications and family relationships.
From the Paper "The University of Michigan performed the largest study ever on Cochlear implants and released the findings in January of last year. Researchers found that children who are implanted with cochlears before the age of four are able to achieve high levels of speech recognition and language skills. Dr. Paul Kileny establishes that research shows ?a significant difference in speech recognition between those who got their implants between the ages of 2 and 4 years, during the critical language development period, and those who received them later.? He concluded that people who receive the implant early in life get the greatest benefits."
Tags: deaf, American, Medical, Association, sign, language
Abstract Based on a substantial amount of empirical research conducted on second language acquisition, it has been theorized that learners are best able to achieve the critical skill of learning a second language at some point fairly early in their maturational development. This claim is known as the "critical period hypothesis," which postulates that there is some maturational period for language learning that maximizes one's degree of proficiency in the language beyond that of other maturational periods. This study examines whether the critical period during which children are best able to learn English as a second language is before six years or age. To this end, the study compares the English proficiency levels of two groups of eighth grade ESL learners, a group that had begun to learn English before they were six years of age and a group that had begun to learn English after six years of age. Because the nature of language required in school is complex, a fairly complex assessment was made of English proficiency, namely English proficiency was assessed using the Quick-Start in English Written Language Assessment (QSE). The study shows that there are higher proficiency levels for those children who learned English before six than for those children who learned it after six years of age.
Table of Contents:
The Problem
Background
Problem Statement
Significance
Limitations
Null Hypothesis
Review of the Literature
Introduction
Critical Period Hypothesis and the Best Age of Second
Language Learning: The Pertinent Research
Conclusions
Subjects, Materials and Methods
The Setting
Subjects
Materials
Methods
Methods Used To Obtain Permission To Conduct Research
Data Gathering Methods
The Findings
Conclusions and Recommendations
References
Appendix A
Letter Mailed From Researcher to Supervisor
Appendix B
Letter From Supervisor
Appendix C
Letter Sent to Mark's Middle School Principal
Appendix D
Letter received from Mark's Middle School Principal
From the Paper "While many claims have been made as to what precise age/age group constitutes the critical period, some recent research conducted in Germany, Doll (1996) stated that this critical period takes place during kindergarten or first grade. In other words, the period occurs sometime before the child is six years of age. What is interesting about Doll's findings is that they are in conflict with the majority of the earlier research in the area; this research tending to show that the critical period for effectively learning a second language is between the ages of eight and ten years (Bialystok, 1997)."
Abstract George Orwell's discourse on the political and social significance of the modern English writing is the primary theme shown in his essay, "Politics and the English Language," (1945). The paper shows that in this discourse, Orwell discusses the faults of modern English language regarding the gradual spread of vagueness and insincerity in the meaning of prose text. The paper shows Orwell's proposed solutions to this problem of vagueness in the English language, especially with regard to political writings. To convey Orwell's idea of poor English prose, this paper analyzes Abraham Lincoln's "The Gettysburg Address," delivered in 1863 as the President's reaction to the ongoing Civil War during that period.
From the Paper "For Orwell, thought must definitely determine language, and not the other way around. This means that there must first be clarity and sincerity of thought before effective writing will take place. This way, problems of vagueness will be avoided, an element of writing that results to insincerity. This means that the use of elaborate explanations to express a feeling or thought is an ineffective way of explaining and describing these thoughts, and Orwell suggests that long and elaborate sentences must be replaced with short, concise ones, where meaning will become clearer to the audience. While avoiding an imposition of definite rules in English writing and composition, Orwell enumerated and discussed the common mistakes and faults that prose writers commit in expressing their thoughts on important issues, especially those that are political and social in nature."
An assessment and description of the different aspects of the Peters' Chomsky's and Brown's theories in detail and opinions on which theory proves to be the most successful and credible based on research.
2,706 words (approx. 10.8 pages), 8 sources, 1999, $ 81.95
From the Paper "How does a child begin to speak? Why? These are questions that many linguists set out to answer as they explore the world of language acquisition. Three credible linguists, Ann M. Peters, Noam Chomsky, and Roger Brown, all have different opinions and theories of language acquisition. All of them address influences, grammar, and patterns of speech in their theories, but in different contexts. Chomsky believes it is genetic, Peters believes it is totally up to the environment, and Brown believes it is due to positive reinforcement and trial and error. All three theories are credible and have provided great insight into the ways children do acquire language. Language acquisition is a widely researched topic, and will continue to have new theories evolve as long as children keep talking. This paper assesses and describes different aspects of each linguists? theory in detail and offers the author's opinion on which theory proves to be the most successful and credible based on reasearch."
Abstract This paper presents an examination of the English language and its origins. The author traces through the three stages of Old English, Middle English, and Modern English and examines the development of language.
From the Paper "The English Language has been built on the backs of great nations and as these nations rose they brought with them a language that has evolved over many generations and is spoken all over the world. The history of the English language is an extensive and colorful one that has filled the lives of the linguistic scholars who have studied it with many hours of reading material. The English language and its origins will be traced through the three stages of Old English, Middle English, and Modern English. The stages will be studied in order to understand what influences have played a key role in the development of English. Also in this paper a look will be taken at the ways slang, jargon, and Colloquialism continue to the changes that English is even now under going."
Tags: development, english, history, midle, modern, old, language, words
Abstract This paper discusses the pros and cons of bilingualism focusing on the homogenizing of the world's languages and the struggle to keep some languages and cultures alive. It mentions the effects of colonial powers, the necessities of learning other languages for trade purposes and the reluctance of younger members of minority groups to learn their original tongue. Contains information such as the top nine countries language wise contain 3,300 languages. The paper also discusses the gradual process of change in a language.
From the paper:
?Bilingualism is a reality today and it will become a greater reality as time goes. The extent to which it is prevalent is evidenced by the presence of bilinguals in every country today, as well as in every social class and every age group. International travel, communication and the mass media, emigration and planetary economics have created a so-called global village whereby inhabitants speak more than their own native language."
Abstract This paper provides examples of the differences between standard English and African American Vernacular English (AAVE). It explains the development and history of this language and explores how it has been taught and passed down to the next generation. It also examines the roots and origins of AAVE and asks what the future holds.
From the Paper "There are a couple of theories as to the origin of African American Vernacular Englsh (AAVE). Some linguists believe that the language derives from West African languages. This dialect theory is based on the knowledge that most African Americans who were brought to the United States from Africa had to learn how to speak English by ear. The may have picked up some of the English words incorrectly and incorporated the incorrect words in their language. Another theory is called the creole hypothesis. This theory bases its origin on the thought that slaves developed the language themselves. The slaves, who came from many different countries in Africa formulated AAVE so that they may talk amongst themselves. They developed with is called a pidgin by combining words from their own language with new words from America. They used grammar and speech patterns that were known to them from their own language as well. The language was then indirectly taught, or passed on to their children and children's children. Future generations now know the AAVE language."
Abstract This paper discusses the pros and cons of teaching solely in English in the United States. The author explains how the advantages convince us that we should adopt instruction in English nationwide in order to live up to our reputation as a land of equality among our residents. The paper also discusses how teaching in languages alienates English speakers from non-English speakers.
From the paper:
"In the United States, we residents are well known for our diversity and ability to accept many different things. The battle over the most effective way to teach our children has resulted in an ongoing debate between teaching in the English language or bilingual education. Not only has bilingual education been a failure in many parts of the country, but also a waste of precious financial resources. The prevailing language in the U.S. is English, and it has worked well to keep the country united. With a high number of diverse cultures cohabitating, the assortment of languages has served to promote ethnic elitism. Those who do not speak English fluently are incessantly among lower social classes."
Tags: bilingual, children, education, spanish, teach, class, melting, pot, u.s.
This paper gives an evaluation of the theoretical claims, empirical evidence, and practical consequences associated with the concept of the critical period.
Abstract This paper studies the critical period hypothesis which suggests that languages cannot be learned after the age of twelve. However, an evaluation of evidence from many different sources suggests that this is not accurate. It examines sources such as: Studies of second language learning methods, wild children studies and the theories of Noam Chomsky and Stephen Krashen. Factors which make it easier for children to learn language, such as parentheses, are also discussed.
From the Paper "The "critical period" hypothesis cites a commonly observable phenomenon, the fact that children find language learning much easier than adults, and learn language remarkably quickly, to claim that language learning is more difficult, or impossible after puberty. The concept of "critical periods" was initially introduced in the study of animal behaviour, where it was noticed that certain behavioural responses only emerged when stimulus was given within a particular time frame. This concept has been applied to many species, including humans, with regard to the development of specific emotional responses such as stress. In 1967 Lenneberg proposed that this concept also applied to human linguistic development, seeing language as a response, and exposure to language as the stimulus. There are two versions of this hypothesis: the "strong" version, which claims that no language acquisition is possible after puberty, and the "weak" version, which maintains that language learning will be much more difficult. A distinction is often made between "language acquisition", the way in which children unconsciously learn their native tongue, and "language learning" which implies formal instruction, and Lenneberg maintains this distinction himself."
Abstract This paper examines how socio-linguistic study shows that men and women use language in different ways, which all too often leads to male-female mis-communication. It looks at how, although the dominance approach and the difference approach are the two main viewpoints in analysing gender and language, some linguists have taken a position somewhere in between the two. It explores these theories and concludes with the author's viewpoint on the subject.
From the Paper "The dominance theory emphasizes the idea that linguistic differences in women and men's language exist as a result of men's power and women's subordination. The dominance approach considers linguistic differences to be a result of traditional social differences i.e. that of man in the role of power, and woman in the role of submission. Man's authority and woman's inferiority are mirrored through their linguistic behaviour. This research focuses mainly on a variety of features, such as the use of tag questions, interruptions, questions, standard forms and minimal responses."
How, through a careful look at Chomsky's life, philosophy of language, and contribution to the field of linguistics, one can see his overwhelming power over the now widely accepted notions regarding the discipline.
2,090 words (approx. 8.4 pages), 7 sources, 2000, $ 65.95
From the Paper "The work of Noam Chomsky overturned all former approaches to language, from ancient Greeks? to those of his own teachers, and challenged assumptions about linguistic research, including both empiricist and nonempiricist methods (Newmeyer 1986:66). One of modern linguistics most influential contributors, Noam Chomsky, rose from a humble background to not only add fresh insight, but to revolutionize the way the world thought of linguistics as a discipline. Chomsky is a renowned professor of linguistics at MIT, in addition to being one of North America's most prominent political dissidents; he has authored over 30 political books dissecting such issues as U.S. intervention in the developing world, the political economy of human rights and the propaganda role of corporate media. This care for the unvoiced people of the world shines through in his theory of the innateness and creativity of language. Through a careful look at Chomsky's life, philosophy of language, and contribution to the field of linguistics, one can see his overwhelming power over the now widely accepted notions regarding the discipline. His substantial addition to the field cannot be overlooked in a survey of linguistics, for he single-handedly created numerous breakthroughs in theories and research styles."
