Abstract The paper offers arguments on the importance of the U.S.-Indonesia relations during the Cold War era. The main point that this paper reflects is how the potential spread of Communism in Indonesia paved the way for the infiltration of U.S. foreign policy into Indonesia's domestic and foreign affairs. U.S. interest in Indonesia focused mainly on the country's abundance of natural resources and location, and the U.S. attempted to dissuade Indonesia from falling into Communist hands.
From the Paper ?With Sukarno spearheading the quest for Indonesia Merdeka, Indonesian demands for independence grew dramatically, prompting the colonial government to withdraw from its Ethical Policy commitments by the late 1920s. Fearing potential surges of nationalist movements, the leaders of PNI were arrested and later tried. Among others, Sukarno was arrested in December 1929 and put on trial for sedition in 1930, after which he was found guilty and sentenced to four years in prison. The imprisonment of the party leaders led to the dissolution of the PNI in April 1931. The split was thought to have been triggered by disparities in approaches to the nationalist movement, each with ethnic overtones. Furthermore, fueled by their intolerance of radical nationalist movements, the Dutch government formally banned a new stream of nationalist movement in the form of Partindo (Indonesian Party), which replaced the PNI as the new dominant force in nationalist movement."
Abstract The purpose of Kenneth Waltz's book, "Man, the State and War", is to debunk theories that do not locate the causes of war in the system. Unlike Morgenthau who does not believe international relations can change because human nature cannot change, Waltz believes that by changing the nature of the system, changes can be made in international relations. This paper discusses the three hypotheses, or "images", put forth by Waltz in his book. First, human nature is the cause of war; second, the causes of war are found within states, since domestic society conditions human behavior; and, finally, the causes of war lie within the international system because the nature of the system conditions state behavior.
From the Paper "The same holds true for international relations. Anarchy is the key characteristic of the international system and results from the absence of a central authority, a world government, for example, able to maintain order. Anarchy is not the same as chaos, which is an absence of order. In anarchy, order is a result of the interactions of states. However, order is not automatic. Waltz rejects the idea that a balance of power is inevitable, inherent or natural. Instead, states will use force to get what they want if they value that interest more than peace. This means that states engage in cost-benefit analyses and will choose war if they believe the benefits of a use of force outweigh its costs."
Abstract This paper explains that the concepts of self-determination and human rights have had a great impact on international law. The author points out that the entire issue of using force to settle international disputes is now disputed, except for situations involving self-defense and humanitarian grounds. The paper states that the behavior of the state, according to the different laws, ultimately decides the behavior of the other states towards it and, thus, establishes a pattern of behavior of all states at a very practical level.
From the Paper "The charter of the United Nations itself clarifies the position by stating that the charter does not impair the traditional rights of the individual or any group for self-defense when attacked. This is to be combined with the position as defined in the practice of international law as shown by the Caroline case. This case also shows certain principles, and the chief among them is that the response must be proportionate to the perceived harm or received damages. Even in this case, there are differences of opinion. The relative importance of the UN charter or the Caroline case has to be decided."
Abstract This paper discusses the requirements for a country's entry into the European Union from the perspectives of the original EU members, the new members, and a variety of outside nations, particularly the United States.
From the Paper "When ten countries recently joined the 15 existing European Union (EU) member-states, the event represented the largest enlargement of the European Union in its history (Golino, 2003). One of the major perceived benefits of this union is that the countries formed an economic, political and military coalition with a combined population of 450 million people and an economy that produces approximately one-quarter of the world's annual output."
Abstract This paper discusses the wars that occurred during the years that John F. Kennedy was president of the United States. The paper reviews the book, "Kennedy's Wars: Berlin, Cuba, Laos, & Vietnam", by Lawrence Freedman, describing John F. Kennedy's role in foreign politics.
From the Paper "Freedman's thesis is compelling and clear. Kennedy and his advisors were faced with numerous foreign crises during his presidency, and they had to be flexible, because each crisis demanded a new solution. Each was demanding, and at the height of the Cold War, each had to be dealt with delicately, because nuclear war was a serious and constant threat. As each new threat shows itself, Freedman clearly defines it, gives background on it, and then speculates on what Kennedy might have done differently, and what others might have done in the same circumstances."
Abstract This paper is a careful examination of the similarities and differences in the business and legal climates in the UK and U.S. It discusses how the common law heritage of most of the countries in the United States (Louisiana's law are based largely on the Napoleonic Code) and the United Kingdom ensure a number of similarities in the manifestation of contemporary laws. It points out, however, like the electrical outlets and doorknobs in use in both countries, a sufficient number of differences exist to make direct comparisons between the two nations difficult but interesting. It explains how it has been shown that traditional contract laws in the U.K. and U.S. have both developed rules and principles that control the voluntary assumption of obligations, regulating the performance of obligations so assumed, and providing sanctions for failure to perform. The writer concludes that both countries' cultural traditions are reflective of the respective country's heterogeneity and its central importance in world affairs over the past several centuries.
Outline
Introduction
Review and Discussion
Conclusion
From the Paper "The United Kingdom and the United States share a common heritage, language and culture. Even the U.S. Constitution itself was significantly influenced by the political concepts emerging from the U.K. at the time. Today, the two countries are staunch allies in the war on terrorism, and both countries continue to enjoy high levels of trade with each other. Notwithstanding the many commonalities between the two English-speaking nations, a sufficient amount of dissimilarities exist and a better understanding of these differences can provide some insight into how these countries engage in business today."
Abstract This paper examines the development of the tank. The paper discusses the apparent short-sightedness of the United States military in terms of producing enough tanks to meet the challenges made by the Germans. The paper contends the development of the tank as field artillery had a profound impact on the conduct of war between 1776 and 1918.
From the Paper "Six years after that crude Hotchkiss-build steam engine ?tank,? the British, not the Americans, recognized the need for, design, and built the first motorized armoured fighting vehicle, according to TheFreedictionary.com (TFD). In February 1915 the British set up the Landship Committee to look into designing a ?massive troop transporter,? and they established as requirements an armoured vehicle that would travel 4 MPH, climb a 5-foot high parapet, cross an 8-foot wide trench, and be armed with machine guns and cannons."
Abstract This paper investigates the details of the EU draft constitution. In particular, the paper seeks to critically evaluate the extent to which the draft constitution creates an institutional architecture that is both sustainable for the future of Europe and achieves an appropriate inter-institutional balance. The paper begins with a brief overview of the European Union and the nations that are a part of the entity.
Introduction
Overview of the European Union
Main Aspects of the Constitution
Opponents of the Constitution
Critical Evaluation
Discussion and Conclusion
From the Paper "The architecture of the constitution is such that it does have the ability to grow and it also makes concessions for the addition of new nations into the union. In addition, the Union will be responsible for making decisions concerning the international community. This decision making ability will allow the European Union to make definitive decisions regarding support for military and humanitarian efforts throughout the world."
Tags: italy, france, germany, luxembourg, belgium, netherlands, economic, community
Abstract This paper discusses the impact that cultural events have on tourism. Specific areas described are Southeast Asia and Middle Eastern nations. It looks at how the local culture impacts tourism and is also impacted by tourism.
From the Paper "Our own cultural heritage is deeply engrained into our psychic beliefs in such a way that we may never fully understand the deep effects that it plays on our everyday lives. This cultural identity is often tested when one ventures outside of this comfort area. This often occurs when an individual travels outside their local area or country. Cultural shock is often the result of this rapid, unknown change."
Abstract This paper discusses the impact of globalization on the international tourism industry in the U.S. and abroad.
From the Paper "The globalization of the developing world by the industrialized, developed world is a large concern for these new progressing nations. This effect has been brought to light as a result of the resurrected focus on opening up these markets to free trade and tourism opportunities. Several of these nations have been caught up in a practice of isolationism, or separatism from the developed world. This has depressed their economies significantly and limited their opportunities for growth in the new age globalization. This limited horizon has recently taken a huge turn for the better in several of these countries and spurred much development and growth for these areas."
Abstract This paper examines how the interpretation of the World Trade Organization (WTO) rules in dispute settlements has shown both the limits and scope of how a rule-making body, with a legacy of compromise and negotiated outcomes, deals with environmental protection. It spells out the WTO position on the trade-environment linkage and then reviews the key provisions negotiated under the WTO framework that relate to environmental policies. Next, it details the scope and limit of these rules by analyzing a sample of environmental cases interpreted in the WTO dispute settlement body (DSB). These include the tuna-dolphin, shrimp-turtle, reformulated gasoline, and asbestos cases. It also looks at how the WTO rules compare to those established under other Multilateral Environmental Agreement (MEAs) and how this relationship is significant as it highlights limits.
From the Paper "The preamble to the Marrakesh Agreement that establishes the WTO has referred to the importance of working towards sustainable development. The Members have recognized that "their relations in the field of trade and economic endeavor should be conducted with a view to....protect and preserve the environment and to enhance the means for doing so in a manner consistent with their respective needs and concerns at different levels of economic development" This statement contains an example of the legacy of compromise and the result of negotiated outcomes in the WTO. In the case of environmental protection there is a compromise of "sustainable development" embedded in the WTO Agreements and mandates that gives leeway to "creative ambiguities"."
Abstract This paper defines key terms necessary for the paper ('human rights', 'civil rights' and 'civil liberties') and gives a brief history of the development of human rights (from Socrates through to the U.S. Bill of Rights and the United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights). The main paper is split into two parts. Part one looks at alleged human rights violations from both an external, generally 'Western', perspective and an internal, Chinese (Asian-Islamic) perspective. It argues that human rights as an issue is being manipulated by both Western and Eastern governments for political purposes. Examples used in the paper include alleged oppression in Tibet, Xinjiang, and Tianenmen Square; as well as suspected torture based on religious, political and socio-cultural intolerance by the Chinese government. Part two looks at possible solutions to the human rights issue. It again uses both internal (Chinese) and external (U.S. and U.N.) perspectives and leads to the thought-provoking conclusion. The full text of the UN's Universal Declaration of Human Rights is included in the appendix.
From the Paper "'Human rights' are rights that all humans are entitled to such as the right to live, the right to liberty, the right to freedom of expression and the right to equality within society. 'Civil rights' and 'civil liberties' refer to the guarantees that a state may make to its citizens and are offered in addition to one's basic human rights. Perhaps the best quantification of human rights (and the mostly widely accepted in the West) is the United Nations' Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Although the UN's Declaration is over half a century old and has been savagely criticized at times it still serves as a useful guide to general ideals of human rights."
Abstract This paper addresses shifts in the balance of power and in security rather than how psychological and social changes are affecting politics. The paper looks at how globalization and interdependence weaken sovereignty. It then outlines the rising power of non-state actors, such as NGOs and transnational corporations. The writer also discusses the nationalist, and often disintegrative, forces that exist as part of the globalized world. It ends by describing the effect that globalization has upon security.
From the Paper "The weakening of state sovereignty is often part of the definition of globalization. Sovereignty is being eroded in several ways. A global society is developing in which people share similar experiences and values and feel connected to people in other states. In the global society, personal allegiance to the state may be not be as strong as allegiance to substate or international groups. In addition, the lack of hot war between great powers after WWII has meant that the great powers are less able to wield their national symbols effectively and inspire devotion to the state. This lessens the state's power over its citizens in crucial situations, such as when a state wishes to go to war. I will discuss that situation further in later in the paper. In the global society, people feel bound by common humanity and are therefore sensitive to human rights violations. Globalization has not stopped human rights violations but the actions have become publicized through recently improved communications networks and human rights abuses are likely to be censured. Human rights violations may even result in humanitarian intervention, which will be discussed later. The qualifications for sovereignty have changed. Legitimate state authority is now "linked, in moral and legal terms, with the maintenance of human rights, values, and democratic standards." State sovereignty is frequently violated by intervention and undercut by the allegiances of the state's own citizens."
Abstract This paper provides background and overview information on Puerto Rico and its people today, followed by a review of Duany's book, "The Puerto Rican Nation on the Move: Identities on the Island and in the United States (2002)". A summary of the research is provided in the conclusion.
From the Paper "The author reports that the mulatto category was dropped entirely after 1920, and racial categories were diminished into bare-bone white vs. colored, non-white or Negro, a process that mirrored that taking place in the census categories on the U.S. mainland. The author notes that the official disappearance of racially intermediate types consolidated the movement from "non-white" to "white categories" in Puerto Rico, and Duany (2002: 250) suggests this occurred based on the U.S. government's attempt to apply a binary race model to a fluid multiracial situation in Puerto Rico."
Abstract This paper discusses the importance of communication between countries and government representatives that is efficient and effective and does not require the the aid of expensive translators. The paper further argues that the only way to achieve this important and essential efficient communication is through the adoption of a universal language, which all the people of the world understand and speak. Finally, the paper contends that such a language should be an artificial language, such as Esperanto, because it is politically neutral and not linked to any specific country, culture, or political ideology; is easier to learn than any other language; and is well-developed enough as a language to fulfill the action of communication for all purposes. A complete outline and an annotated bibliography is included with the paper.
From the Paper "In the era of globalization and increase of interaction between the global population, the importance of an international language increases. The numbers reported by Kep Enderby, the author of "The Problem of Language In International Affairs," and a former government minister and judge, support this argument. Enderby informs readers that the world's 5.2 billion people speak 3,000 different world languages and 7,000 dialects (par. 2). As global cooperation is necessary, thousands of people from across the world attend over 2,000 international conferences a year (par. 26). Since they do not have a common language, at least four different languages are officially used, with translators still needed (Enderby par. 33). People and governments do not have a common language, and this results in misunderstandings, waste of time and waste of money. In the age where all countries are connected and dependant on one another, and where representatives of governments have to meet regularly and often, it is essential that communication between them is efficient and not requiring the aid of expensive translators. The only way to achieve this important and essential efficient communication is through the adoption of a universal language which all the people of the world understand and speak. Furthermore, a universal language will have the practical objective of giving all people, from all countries, a global identity. Most people agree with this idea but disagree on whether this universal language should be a natural language such as English, or an artificial one such as Esperanto. Although many people favor the adopting of English as an international language, believing that it is an obvious choice because it is already a popular and widely spoken second language, that is easy to learn, it is not a good alternative. The best choice for an international language is an artificial one like Esperanto because it is politically neutral, not linked to any specific country, culture or political ideology, is easier to learn than any other language, and is well-developed enough as a language to fulfill the action of communication for all purposes. However, the success of adopting Esperanto as a "lingua humana," like Gardner Ralph White calls it in "Towards the Construction of A Lingua Humana," (113) is greatly dependant upon its introduction into the educational systems of countries as a second language and the chances for its success are poor."
