Abstract The paper describes through examples, the principles that underpin modern developments in vaccination strategies. It gives a background to the development of vaccines, and describes how they work and the bodies immune response. It also looks at current developments in vaccinations and gives detailed descriptions of various vaccination methods. It uses specific U.K.examples with the MMR vaccine.
From the Paper "The response to immunisation/vaccination can be enhanced by a number of agents, and collectively these are termed adjuvants. These are a heterogeneous group of compounds, with several different mechanisms of action. In the history of immunisation/vaccination, many compounds have been used empirically, with little knowledge about how they may work. Several vaccines are composed of proteins that have bee precipitated with alum, and others are emulsified in oil based compounds. One of the best known emulsifying agent's is Freund's complete adjuvant, which contains mycobacterial derivatives. Amongst these, bacterial cell wall components such as lipopolysaccharide are powerful immune stimulants, having an activating effect on macrophages and T-cells."
Abstract This study considers the issue of preventing the quadrivalent human papilloma virus (HPV) through a immunization program of girls in a California school. The population of the study is specifically Latino, and issues surrounding health care in the Latino community are discussed. The efficacy of the vaccination is described as are the methods in which this disease is transferred. The paper also explains the dangers of HPV, giving statistics of the consequences of infection. Methods of prevention, including vaccination, are also highlighted. The paper concludes that further research which include studies to determine the long term efficacy of the vaccination as well as the length of protection it offers is necessary.
Outline
Abstract
Background/Review of Literature
Discussion/Recommendations for Further Study
From the Paper "According to the Centers for Disease Control, Advisory Committee on Immunization and Practices, Resolution 6/06-2 the administration of the quadrivalent Human Papilloma Virus vaccination is suggested for administration to girls as young as 9 but preferably in the age set of 11-12, and as a catch up vaccination for girls aged 13-18. The vaccination is to be given in three staggered doses with the second dose given 2 months from the first and the third 6 months after the first dose. This is based on the positive research findings of both non-profit research groups and pharmaceutical companies developing preventative HPV vaccinations. This work addresses the validity of mandating this vaccine in Solano County California, upon these age guidelines as a prophylactic measure to decrease the incidence of the specific HPV types (6,11,16,18) associated with the vaccination, namely the Merck vaccination trade name Gardasil. In addition to this informative resolution the California Department of Health Services has obtained the vaccination and has made compatible resolutions to vaccinate girls according to the national recommendations, either through private physicians or through state and local agency immunization programs, (California Vaccines for Children (VFC) Program Providers) such as those found in Solano County."
Abstract The paper describes how the HIV vaccine attacks the immune system with the T-Cells. Also, it discusses different types of vaccines and how they work along with leading causes of AIDS and how it has become an epidemic. It examines different forms of research and other attempts at creating a vaccine in the past.
From the Paper "Since the HIV epidemic began in the 1970?s, it is estimated that 22 million persons are infected with the virus that causes AIDS. There are 3 million new infections each year with 65 percent of these cases in developing countries. There is no cure for AIDS and the outlook for finding a cure is very bleak, therefore a preventive vaccine is urgently needed to control the spread of HIV/AIDS. It is important to remember that being HIV positive does not equate to having AIDS, however it is only a matter of time that the virus will progress to the disease."
Abstract This paper explains how one of the most important health advances of the 20th century has been immunization. It looks at how this development has stopped the spread of several potentially fatal diseases and explains that DNA vaccines have become the most promising area of vaccinology. The paper briefly looks at the technology of DNA vaccines and how these could be used in the future.
From the Paper "DNA vaccines have the potential to be used as therapy, designed to treat a particular active disease, such as inducing cell-medicated immunity to bowel, or breast cells that express cancer antigens, thus causing the body to identify and kill tumor cells (Simmerman pg). In fact, researchers are now studying DNA vaccines for cervical cancer (Simmerman pg). For over a decade, investigators have been extensively using animal models to research DNA vaccines and recent trials have used small numbers of humans to determine treatment tolerance and immune response (Simmerman pg). Since the majority of these trials are phase I, they focus on safety and do not measure efficacy, however, in trials for hepatitis B, herpes, HIV, malaria, adenocarcinoma of the breast and colon, and lymphoma, the subjects have tolerated the vaccines relatively well (Simmerman pg)."
Abstract This paper explains that, since Professor Robert Gallo confirmed etiological agents of AIDS in 1984, scientists in the United States, along with many other countries, have been making tremendous strides in the race to develop a vaccine for HIV. The author points out that the problem researchers have been facing is that the HIV virus does not respond to classical vaccination approaches, which have been used for other vaccines including smallpox and polio. The paper relates that, once the vaccine has been developed and released to the general population for use, scientists may see a decrease in illness even though not all persons have been given the vaccination.
From the Paper "The two vaccine mechanisms differ in how the genes are packaged, with one being a naked version (can't reconstitute into a contagious virus) and the other a weakened type. Since only HIV gene fragments are attached to the adenovirus, ones that cannot replicate, any participants in the study would not have reason to believe that they can become infected with the HIV virus. Directors of this study feel that using the adenovirus vector appears to be the most promising advance in the past years attempts of research. Half of the participants will be from the Americas, while the other half will be in Southern Africa. The participants will be divided into two groups and will get four injections that will be spread out over a six month period. Half will be given the vaccine while the other half will get the placebo."
Abstract This paper presents the issues surrounding childhood vaccinations. Many parents today worry that autism and other side effects can be caused by vaccines given to their children. This paper includes research on the complications of vaccines, information on the amount of shots children should receive and an explanation on how vaccines work in the body.
From the Paper "The theory of vaccinations has never been successfully tested. Perhaps we are lab rats. In fact right now there is a growing debate over whether vaccinations are linked to the increased incidence of lung, brain and bone cancers seen in children and adults. The bottom line is that vaccines prevent diseases that are very real. We have to weigh that against the theoretical concern for which there is no proof."
Abstract This paper looks at the pioneering use of vaccines by Edward Jenner and the expansion of types of vaccines over the years. It also looks at the growing opposition to vaccines today.
Abstract The paper comments that the news that is provided by today's news industry is a plethora of skewed facts, filtered reporting, and agenda-setting by a few controlling media empires, leaving U.S. citizens grasping for the real story, which is rarely the one related in today's news reporting. The paper discusses a review, over a period of three-weeks, of four articles published in the 'news' media, in order to analyze how information concerning vaccines and autism has been presented and portrayed by them.
Outline:
Introduction
Statement of Thesis
Paul Offit on Autism and VaccinesBernadine Healy M.D. Speaks on Autism and Vaccines New York Times Report
Health Officials Offer Encouragement For Vaccines Analysis
Summary and Conclusion
From the Paper "The Dallas News report states that the federal government, while Health Officials at both the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and the American Academy of Pediatrics "have steadfastly assured the public that vaccines do not cause autism..." appears to "have said exactly the opposite." This report relates that fact that due to heavy filing of lawsuits in 1985 against the makers of vaccine "Congress created the National Vaccine Injury Compensation Program, financed by a tax on every dose of vaccine."
Abstract This paper analyzes the topic of immunization of children in the United States. Specifically, it discusses why the immunization rate of children in the U.S. is so high and the validity of the reasons why some parents choose not to immunize their children. Most children in the United States receive immunization from a variety of diseases when they are toddlers. Yet, some parents choose not to immunize their children for a variety of reasons. The paper questions whether these children are protected adequately and whether they pose a danger to other, already immunized children.
From the Paper "Most people who immunize their children do so because they believe in the validity of the claims of the health profession that immunization saves lives, and because it is required before their children can enter school. There are also dire warnings from doctors and the health community regarding not immunizing children. The Center for Disease Control (CDC) web site notes: "Parents should be aware that withholding vaccinations leaves their child vulnerable to vaccine-preventable diseases in the event of an outbreak" (Editors). Recognizing there are barriers to many children receiving their vaccines, including lack of knowledge, lack of funds, and fear, a nationwide initiative was created in 1993 titled the Childhood Immunization Initiative (CII), which had a goal of inoculating 90 percent of two-year-old children. The campaign was extremely successful. "Nationwide there was 91% to 95% coverage achieved for individual vaccines" (Horner and Murphy 122). Today, immunization remains at about 95 percent of the children in the United States vaccinated by the time they enter school (Editors)."
Tags: Center, for, Disease, Control, CDC, natural, immunity
An analysis of the article 'Associations Between Childhood Vaccination Coverage Insurance Type And Breaks In Health Insurance' by Smith, Stevenson and Chu.
900 words (approx. 3.6 pages), 1 source, 2006, $ 35.95
Abstract This journal article analysis examines an article entitled 'Associations Between Childhood Vaccination Coverage Insurance Type And Breaks In Health Insurance' by Smith, Stevenson and Chu (2006). The authors attempt to identify trends if any in relationships between vaccination patterns insurance coverage as well as insurance types in children. This analysis concludes that the authors have not contributed any original research and based their hypothesis on a faulty sampling methodology based on survey results that they didn't undertake themselves.
From the Paper "These authors also sought to determine if race or ethnicity factor into these vaccination patterns as well. The researchers rely predominantly on a survey of 8324 children who were surveyed by the National Immunization Survey who were also covered by some type of insurance program be it Medicaid or state sponsored coverage as well as private insurance policies. The survey also included children who were not covered at the time of the survey or who, at some point in time prior to the survey, left temporarily without insurance coverage. "
Abstract This paper begins with the presentation of a flowchart highlighting the body's immune system response at the cellular level incorporating both the cell mediated and humoral immune systems. Following this, a discussion of the immune system's response to the presence of an allergen is discussed and how allergy treatments affect the immune system response.
From the Paper "The human body has two main components to its immune system: the Cell Mediated Response and the Humoral Response. While both are unique responses of the immune system, there is strong interplay between the two. The following flowchart will present the immune system's response to attack. The presence of an allergen is not generally a life-threatening situation requiring a full immunological response, however, that is often exactly what happens. The following section will discuss the various components of the immune system that are involved in an allergic response and how treatment of allergies affects the immune system. In response to an allergen, the immune system mounts a defense. There is dispute in the medical community whether an allergen is actually a foreign substance or not (Dr. Danielle West, personal communication, January 17, 2006) however the key is how the immune system reacts to"
Abstract This paper looks at the lymphatic system and the immune system. It compares blood, lymph and interstitial fluid, and compares lymph nodes with the spleen. It then examines humoral and cell-mediated immunity, primary and secondary immune responses, and the role of complement.
Tags: lymph, complement, cell-mediated vs humoral immunity
Abstract This paper discusses the problem of medicine's inability to induce antigen-specific immune tolerance, the final technical obstacle to bringing face transplants into widespread clinical application. The paper presents an overview of historic and current immunological research - from the use of chimerism, to the use of monoclonal antibodies to control T-cell activation - and its role in future prospects for a non-pharmaceutical strategy for tolerance induction in humans. The paper highlights studies that have examined tolerance in recipients of composite tissue allografts (CTAs), with emphasis on studies using animal models involving skin allografts, and with the intent of providing insight into the issues presented by transplantation of a face. It includes graphs and photographs to illustrate this.
Outline:
Abstract
Introduction
CTA Study Goals
Antigenicity of Facial Allograft Components
Immune Tolerance and Chimerism
T-cells: Activation and Blockage
Memory Cells: The Ghost in the Immune Machine
Conclusion
From the Paper "Investigators are exploring several strategies in an attempt to provide medicine with safe and effective pharmaceuticals and clinical protocols for inducing tolerance after transplant. These include creating and using chimerism, and developing targeted bio-engineered monoclonal antibodies to inactivate or destroy T cells. This review, in its overview of historical and current immunological research, provides insight into the development of a T-cell-based strategy from a basic understanding of chimerism. This review also highlights studies that examine tolerance in recipients of CTA transplants, with specific emphasis on those using skin allograft animal models."
Tags: medical, operation, plastic, surgery, anti-immune, system
Abstract This paper discusses the evolutionary development of vertebrates and the corresponding development of the adaptive immune system. It argues that the adaptive immune response is superior to the innate response, thereby allowing for the evolution of larger and more complex species, specifically, the vertebrates.
From the Paper "Survival is at once both the most primitive and the most vital aim of every organism that has ever existed. Unfortunately, the survival of any organism depends most heavily on its ability to interact with the surrounding environment in such essential tasks as metabolism and respiration. For inherent within these necessary interactions is the risk of the compromise of that organism's integrity and separation from the surrounding atmosphere. The development by living beings of immunological protection against this bodily invasion by foreign matter and additional living beings was perhaps the single greatest accomplishment in the evolution of life on earth. For such immunity, grounded in an organism's ability to distinguish between self and non-self, affords an adaptive advantage unparalleled in any other system. With time and evolution, this immunological protection grew, and certainly continues to grow, increasingly more complex, resulting in the production of organisms ever more fit to prudently interact with the environment around them. The ultimate consequence is the establishment of species that, due to their superior level of adaptation through superior immunological protection, survive better in their given environment. Evidence in favor of this theory of immunological evolution is most apparent in the evolution of the somewhat primitive invertebrates into the more highly developed vertebrates. Aside from being more complex in terms of anatomy, the vertebrates exhibit vastly superior immunological protection from the surrounding environment; this protection is the very basis for the considerable anatomical development of vertebrates over invertebrates."
Abstract The paper describes the general features of the adaptive immune system (especially in relation to innate immunity) in vertebrates, delineates the processes that took place for this complex system to evolve and the reasons behind its evolution.
From the Paper "Microscopic organisms are the most ubiquitous form of life throughout the biosphere. Many of them are parasitic and cause disease. To protect themselves against invasion by pathogens and even cells from an organism of the same species, all animals possess the means to systematically distinguish and eliminate non-self. Based on the diversity, flexibility and specificity of recognition and effector mechanisms, however, the complexity of this system varies across metazoan phyla. From relatively simple histocompatibility reactions mediated by interleukin-like proteins in sponges, to sophisticated interplay of the innate and adaptive immunity in jawed vertebrates, the increased intricacy of the immune response is positively correlated with such features as: complex morphology, increased size and lifespan as well as K-selected reproductive strategy. Thus, the fact that vertebrates exhibit all of the aforementioned characteristics may be the key reason why they are the only group of animals with an adaptive immunity."
