Abstract This paper analyzes the topic of immunization of children in the United States. Specifically, it discusses why the immunization rate of children in the U.S. is so high and the validity of the reasons why some parents choose not to immunize their children. Most children in the United States receive immunization from a variety of diseases when they are toddlers. Yet, some parents choose not to immunize their children for a variety of reasons. The paper questions whether these children are protected adequately and whether they pose a danger to other, already immunized children.
From the Paper "Most people who immunize their children do so because they believe in the validity of the claims of the health profession that immunization saves lives, and because it is required before their children can enter school. There are also dire warnings from doctors and the health community regarding not immunizing children. The Center for Disease Control (CDC) web site notes: "Parents should be aware that withholding vaccinations leaves their child vulnerable to vaccine-preventable diseases in the event of an outbreak" (Editors). Recognizing there are barriers to many children receiving their vaccines, including lack of knowledge, lack of funds, and fear, a nationwide initiative was created in 1993 titled the Childhood Immunization Initiative (CII), which had a goal of inoculating 90 percent of two-year-old children. The campaign was extremely successful. "Nationwide there was 91% to 95% coverage achieved for individual vaccines" (Horner and Murphy 122). Today, immunization remains at about 95 percent of the children in the United States vaccinated by the time they enter school (Editors)."
Tags: Center, for, Disease, Control, CDC, natural, immunity
Abstract This paper begins with the presentation of a flowchart highlighting the body's immune system response at the cellular level incorporating both the cell mediated and humoral immune systems. Following this, a discussion of the immune system's response to the presence of an allergen is discussed and how allergy treatments affect the immune system response.
From the Paper "The human body has two main components to its immune system: the Cell Mediated Response and the Humoral Response. While both are unique responses of the immune system, there is strong interplay between the two. The following flowchart will present the immune system's response to attack. The presence of an allergen is not generally a life-threatening situation requiring a full immunological response, however, that is often exactly what happens. The following section will discuss the various components of the immune system that are involved in an allergic response and how treatment of allergies affects the immune system. In response to an allergen, the immune system mounts a defense. There is dispute in the medical community whether an allergen is actually a foreign substance or not (Dr. Danielle West, personal communication, January 17, 2006) however the key is how the immune system reacts to"
Abstract This paper looks at the lymphatic system and the immune system. It compares blood, lymph and interstitial fluid, and compares lymph nodes with the spleen. It then examines humoral and cell-mediated immunity, primary and secondary immune responses, and the role of complement.
Tags: lymph, complement, cell-mediated vs humoral immunity
Abstract This paper discusses the problem of medicine's inability to induce antigen-specific immune tolerance, the final technical obstacle to bringing face transplants into widespread clinical application. The paper presents an overview of historic and current immunological research - from the use of chimerism, to the use of monoclonal antibodies to control T-cell activation - and its role in future prospects for a non-pharmaceutical strategy for tolerance induction in humans. The paper highlights studies that have examined tolerance in recipients of composite tissue allografts (CTAs), with emphasis on studies using animal models involving skin allografts, and with the intent of providing insight into the issues presented by transplantation of a face. It includes graphs and photographs to illustrate this.
Outline:
Abstract
Introduction
CTA Study Goals
Antigenicity of Facial Allograft Components
Immune Tolerance and Chimerism
T-cells: Activation and Blockage
Memory Cells: The Ghost in the Immune Machine
Conclusion
From the Paper "Investigators are exploring several strategies in an attempt to provide medicine with safe and effective pharmaceuticals and clinical protocols for inducing tolerance after transplant. These include creating and using chimerism, and developing targeted bio-engineered monoclonal antibodies to inactivate or destroy T cells. This review, in its overview of historical and current immunological research, provides insight into the development of a T-cell-based strategy from a basic understanding of chimerism. This review also highlights studies that examine tolerance in recipients of CTA transplants, with specific emphasis on those using skin allograft animal models."
Tags: medical, operation, plastic, surgery, anti-immune, system
Abstract This paper discusses the evolutionary development of vertebrates and the corresponding development of the adaptive immune system. It argues that the adaptive immune response is superior to the innate response, thereby allowing for the evolution of larger and more complex species, specifically, the vertebrates.
From the Paper "Survival is at once both the most primitive and the most vital aim of every organism that has ever existed. Unfortunately, the survival of any organism depends most heavily on its ability to interact with the surrounding environment in such essential tasks as metabolism and respiration. For inherent within these necessary interactions is the risk of the compromise of that organism's integrity and separation from the surrounding atmosphere. The development by living beings of immunological protection against this bodily invasion by foreign matter and additional living beings was perhaps the single greatest accomplishment in the evolution of life on earth. For such immunity, grounded in an organism's ability to distinguish between self and non-self, affords an adaptive advantage unparalleled in any other system. With time and evolution, this immunological protection grew, and certainly continues to grow, increasingly more complex, resulting in the production of organisms ever more fit to prudently interact with the environment around them. The ultimate consequence is the establishment of species that, due to their superior level of adaptation through superior immunological protection, survive better in their given environment. Evidence in favor of this theory of immunological evolution is most apparent in the evolution of the somewhat primitive invertebrates into the more highly developed vertebrates. Aside from being more complex in terms of anatomy, the vertebrates exhibit vastly superior immunological protection from the surrounding environment; this protection is the very basis for the considerable anatomical development of vertebrates over invertebrates."
Abstract The paper describes the general features of the adaptive immune system (especially in relation to innate immunity) in vertebrates, delineates the processes that took place for this complex system to evolve and the reasons behind its evolution.
From the Paper "Microscopic organisms are the most ubiquitous form of life throughout the biosphere. Many of them are parasitic and cause disease. To protect themselves against invasion by pathogens and even cells from an organism of the same species, all animals possess the means to systematically distinguish and eliminate non-self. Based on the diversity, flexibility and specificity of recognition and effector mechanisms, however, the complexity of this system varies across metazoan phyla. From relatively simple histocompatibility reactions mediated by interleukin-like proteins in sponges, to sophisticated interplay of the innate and adaptive immunity in jawed vertebrates, the increased intricacy of the immune response is positively correlated with such features as: complex morphology, increased size and lifespan as well as K-selected reproductive strategy. Thus, the fact that vertebrates exhibit all of the aforementioned characteristics may be the key reason why they are the only group of animals with an adaptive immunity."
A descriptive overview of the vertebrate adaptive immune response to both intra and extra-cellular pathogens with explicit focus on T-cell B-cell collaboration and antibody response.
Abstract This paper covers the major pathways by which foreign antigens are identified and dealt with through the adaptive immune response which is paramount on B-cell and T-cell responses and interaction with one another in distinct pathways and steps. It includes several diagrams and their explanations of antigens, B-Cells, T-Cells, APC's and more and their interactions and processes they go through.
From the Paper "All immune responses involving T-cell B-cell collaborations follow distinct pathways of interactions and development. These very pathways of the adaptive immune response are almost entirely dependant on the cellular interaction of B- cells and T- cells with one another. It is within each stage of these pathways and the progression of an adaptive immune response that we will concern ourselves. The following is a condensed synopsis of the adaptive immune response and the cellular interactions that will be the emphasis of this paper. Within secondary lymph tissues foreign antigen is presented to naive B-cells via their surface immunoglobulins (Igs) receptors. The same antigen is also presented to naive T-cells at this time. This presentation and subsequent recognition of antigen by both types of cells results in and end product of proliferation and development of naive B-cells into plasma cells whose function is the production of soluble immunoglobulins (antibodies), and the differentiation and development of memory B-cells whose function is to respond to subsequent exposure to the same antigen. However, this pathway is not self-sufficient and requires the direct interaction of activated T-cells, specifically "helper" T-cells (Th2 cells) 1,9. It is these T-cells in conjunction with the antigen presenting B-cells that interact to produce a hormonal response to infection. These interactions activate Th2 cells that in turn promote B-cell activation both through T-cell secreted cytokines, (interlukeinI1-2, 4 and 5), and also through direct cell to cell contacts involving specific surface proteins and corresponding receptors and the signaling initiated by the binding of these proteins to one another."
Abstract In this paper the writer first looks at the blood vessels and their functions. Then the writer discusses the meaning of "immunization" and autoimmune diseases. The paper then studies how various diseases affect the lungs. Finally, the writer discusses the function of the nephron, the functional unit of the kidney.
From the Paper "Arteries arterioles and capillaries carry oxygenated blood to the tissues of the body and capillaries venules and veins carry de-oxygenated blood back to the lungs for re-oxygenation. The only arteries which carry oxygen-poor blood are the pulmonary arteries which carry this blood from the right ventricle of the heart to the lungs for oxygenation. The only veins which carry oxygen-rich blood are the pulmonary veins which carry oxygenated blood from the lungs to the left atrium of the heart. The pulmonary arteries ... "
Abstract This paper examines how the relationship between age and immune system deficiency is a complicated one and how on occasion, a counter-intuitive one. This paper also offers some possible further avenues of study that researchers may wish to consider as they continue to learn more about the human body and its efforts to protect itself from harm.
Abstract At the beginning of the millennium life expectancy doubled to approximately 80 years of age, compared to what it was in 1900. This paper studies the new field of immunogerontology that explores the immune system in the aging adult. Recent research has indicated that the immune systems of aged people undergo characteristic changes, generally in the direction of decreased immune competence. As the research presented in this paper reveals, aging affects many aspects of the immune process, and since the immune system interacts with every system of the body it becomes important to have a well-developed understanding of the mechanisms related to the breakdown of this system in the later years of life.
From the Paper "Malnutrition in aging populations is another mechanism, which contributes to the decline in the efficiency of the signal transduction system and as a result leads to the degradation of the immune response. Calcium is an integral part of the signaling mechanism and the biochemical pathways that compose it. Enzymes necessary for T cell proliferation are rendered useless in the absence of calcium as shown by Miller et al (1996). Measurements made in the lab of IL-2 production were shown to be substantially lower than in T cells belonging to younger individuals. It is important to remember that IL-2 is produced after the antigen binds to the receptor-binding site and is responsible for promoting the proliferation of the T cell. Though these experiments are mainly carried out on mice, the biochemical pathways are very similar and results tend to indicate that immunodeficiency in the aging adult is due in part to the decline in calcium concentrations. Other nutrients such as zinc and vitamin E are also important in the proper functioning of the immune system affecting cytokine production and imparting a protective role from damage by free radicals respectively (Moriguchi, 1998)."
Abstract This paper explains that the immune system generates numerous unusual kinds of immune reactions. For example, the body annihilates eukaryotic cells having or bearing foreign cell-surface antigens. These include cancer cells, whose cell-surface antigens are distorted when a normal cell is genetically changed into a cancer cell. The antigen-bearing cell may be eaten by macrophages or killed by killer cells, which are specialized to destroy abnormal body cells. The paper examines how the immune system functions, looking at physiological processes such as cellular immunity and humoral immunity.
From the Paper "Humoral immunity is best explained as if the virus has not yet invaded a body cell, it may be surfaced by antibody molecules that may have been secreted into the body fluids by B cells. The virus-antibody is then eaten and destroyed by a phagocyte."
Abstract This paper explains that several diseases, which killed in the past, have been controlled through the use of vaccinations; however, this does not mean the diseases are gone because, without continuing the vaccination programs, these diseases could reappear. The author points out that many parents believe that the vaccinations can cause other complications or even cause the disease: This is untrue because the vaccination contains a non-active form of the virus or disease and cannot cause the body to contract the disease. The paper stresses that parents must protect their children from contracting deadly diseases, which are preventable through immunization.
Table of Contents
Introduction
Rationalize
Reasons
Disease Prevention
Better Health
Preventing Unnecessary Deaths
Diseases Controlled with Vaccinations
Polio
Measles
Meningitis
Whooping Cough
Rubella
Chicken Pox
Hepatitis B
Diphtheria
Tetanus
Mumps
Rationale for Controlling These Diseases
Myths Associated with Vaccinations
Vaccinations Cause Diseases
Diseases are Not Deadly so Vaccines are not Necessary
Diseases are Eliminated in the U.S. so Vaccines aren't Necessary
Truths about Vaccinations
Emerging Diseases
Toscana Virus
Avian Influenza
Coltiviruses from Ticks
Immunization Tracking in the U.S.
Determining who is Immunized Spread of Diseases Unknowingly
Conclusion
From the Paper "Recently, there have been some new diseases that have emerged and scientists are trying to create vaccinations to control them. One new disease is called the Toscana virus. This virus was discovered in 1971 in Italy. Since then it has spread into Europe. It affects the central nervous system and has been the major cause of meningitis and encephalitis. Scientists are working on the pathogen to find out how it spreads these diseases and how to stop it. Another recently discovered virus is the avian influenza. It has been found in chickens and in humans in Thailand. - It has not been known to transfer from birds to humans but it is believed that it may mutate into a form that will. Currently many organizations are studying the avian influenza and are concerned about a new pandemic. "
Abstract This paper discusses the controversy associated with the link between the development of autism and childhood immunizations. It discusses the theories regarding both the development of autism and the connection between autism and immunizations. The paper argues that autism has a causal relationship with childhood immunizations.
From the Paper "This connection between the increases in incidence of autism and the fact that the cause is unknown has transformed the country, "Although once considered rare, during the last two decades the chance of a child being diagnosed with autism has skyrocketed from one in 10,000 to one in 150." (O'Meara 24) The idea that autism, a devastating disease could be caused by something we think of as a miracle, namely vaccinations for childhood diseases that have killed children for thousands of years, has also transformed the country, made countless parents and scientists sit up and take notice. The culpability of the government as well as industry that through omission or commission contributed to a problem is foundational and many who believe there is a causal connection between autism and immunizations believe that this is why they are trying so diligently to disprove the theory. Not everyone believes that the causal agent is thimerosol but a long list of dangerous and toxic ingredients provided by one expert demonstrates that it could be any number of causative factors or a combination of several, even coupled with a genetic predisposition, also believed by some."
Abstract In this article, the writer introduces, discusses and analyzes the topic of the immune system. Specifically, the writer discusses how negative emotions such as anger, depression, sadness, over-thinking and anxiety can affect the immune system. The writer points out that almost all forms of stress, such as anger, depression, sadness, and anxiety can negatively affect the immune system. Studies show this can lead to many other ailments and diseases, including cancer. The writer maintains that stress is a powerful force and it can cause powerful reactions in our bodies. Too much stress can also lead to permanent damage, as several medical studies indicate. The writer concludes that managing stress and anxiety is good for a healthy existence, and as these studies show, it can also help to reduce instances of serious diseases such as cancer.
From the Paper "This build up of the immune system to chronic stress can also lead to many other conditions, such as tolerance and dependency on many types of drugs. For example, a person under chronic stress who relies on aspirin or other pain relievers may develop a tolerance to the drugs, requiring more drugs to gain the same affect as fewer drug dosages before. Thus, the immune system in high gear can build up tolerances to drugs and other medications in its continued effort to protect the body and fight stress and anxiety. This is also dangerous, because the patient must take more drugs to gain the same result, and some drugs may simply become useless, leading the patient to need new drugs, or perhaps to a situation where no drugs will work against the problem. Continued stress, then, can lead to a wide variety of health problems, all concerning how the immune system reacts and what it does to manage the body in times of stress."
Abstract This essay describes key components of the immune system and how the body uses this system. Also discussed is the cause and effect relationship between stress, the immune system, and certain diseases. Articles listed in the bibliography of this paper are also appended.
From the Paper "How quickly a deceased human (or animal) body breaks down is testament to how well the immune system works. While a body is alive, the immune system protects the body at every living moment from bacteria and other foreign invaders. The immune system is a complex system of cells"which have varying functions"and generated at discreet regions of the body, a circulatory system?the lymphatic system--that feeds of and into the blood circulatory system and lymph nodes that act as effective filters and stores of foreign bodies marked for destruction by antibody action. Most of the time, the immune system protects the body. But on rare occasions we might need outside help: this is when he system does not "figure out" the invasion and the body has to be coaxed into producing antibodies by inoculation with weaker forms of the pathogen. In the case of HIV and AIDS, the body has not been able to create an effective defense, thus these immune deficiency disorders have become the scourge of the last few decades. This essay will not only describe key component of the immune system and how a body uses this system, but will also explore the cause and effect relationship between stress, the immune system and certain diseases."
