This paper discusses the use and evaluation of General Circulation Models as climatic simulations in environmental science: Definition, significance, development, problems, approximations, form and function. Abstract.
3,825 words (approx. 15.3 pages), 18 sources, 1995, $ 135.95
From the Paper "General circulation models (GCM) are used to evaluate past, present, and future climatic phenomena. Climate consists of a region's prevailing weather. Variations in climate are primarily determined by the combined influences of the atmosphere, the continents, and the oceans. Such effects can both foster and hinder human activities. Consequently, considerable effort has been devoted to climate modeling.
In recent years, GCMs have been the primary tool used for climate simulation. These numerical representations describe climatic change in three-dimensions. The models involve numerous data inputs. In addition, they also require various ... "
From the Paper "OZONE LAYER DEPLETION AND ITS EFFECTS
Introduction
The ozone (O3) layer of the Earth's upper atmosphere exists from 50,000 to 120,000 feet (10:2127). Ozone at this level of the earth's atmosphere is generated by the absorption of ultraviolet radiation by oxygen (O2). In forming ozone, ultraviolet radiation of wavelengths between 290 and 320 manometers is absorbed and thus not allowed to reach the surface of the Earth. Concentrations of ozone are a few parts per million, variously estimated between 5 and 10 ppm (10:2127). Unstable ozone molecules are also constantly being created and destroyed by complex natural forces involving solar radiation and interactions with very minute quantities of other gases. Ozone concentrations fluctuate naturally on a daily, seasonal, and ..."
Abstract This paper provides a company profile of the El Paso Corporation, a leading provider of natural gas services in North America, which holds a primary position in every segment of the natural gas value chain through vertical integration from natural gas production to transportation, trading and power generation. It discusses how the demand for natural gas is increasing accompanied by deregulation and convergence of energy markets and the implications for significant growth opportunities for large, financially strong companies in the energy business. It analyzes the current industry looking at competition, rivalry among existing firms, the threat of substitute products, consumers, suppliers and trends and shows the potential effect on the company of competition and threats.
From the Paper "Conversely, with deregulation succeeding creating more competition, customers may switch to other providers causing a downward pressure on prices and margins. The threat to the industry lies if a plentifully available, cheaper source of energy such as wind emerges and from environmental concerns over carbon emissions and global warming. Globally, expensive investments in exploration, finding and production can be jeopardized by the threat of war or economies suddenly closing doors due to internal strife, change in ideology etc."
Abstract Analysis of January 1994 Southern California earthquake. Focal depth of 6.7 magnitude quake. Blind thrust type quake. The fault involved (Oak Ridge system, Pico thrust). Types of damage from the quake (liquefacation, lateral spreading, landslides, differential compaction). Greter damage to Santa Monica. Comparison to 1971 Sylmar earthquake. Retrofitting & engineering codes.
From the Paper "1994 Northridge Earthquake
The 1994 Northridge Earthquake occurred at 4:30:55 AM PST on January 17, 1994. It was measured as a magnitude 6.7 on the Richter scale. This quake occurred along the Northridge Thrust, a fault that is also known as the Pico Thrust. It was centered about 20 miles northwest of Los Angeles and approximately 1 mile south?southwest of Northridge. This quake was a blind thrust type quake.
This particular fault dips to the south at an almost 45 degree angle. As a result, quakes along this fault and similar thrust faults falsely appear far removed from the surface trace. This particular fault forms the ridge slightly to the south of its trace, paralleled by the Santa Clara River and California Sate Highway 126. It begins near the town of Piru in the east and ends just..."
An El Nino event manifests as the appearance of warm sea surface water in the central and eastern Pacific Ocean near the equator. This paper discusses the effect this event has had on Ecuador.
Abstract The writer gives examples of damage done to the country of Ecuador as a result of heavy rains. El Nino battered Ecuador harder than almost any other country. The paper also cites long-term effects of the damage, such as crop destruction and loss of property. The paper then looks at ways in which the country is learning to predict future storms, thereby allowing for preparation.
From the Paper "The Bermeo family had been driven from their small home and farm, looking for dry ground, unable to get into the overcrowded refugee camps. They had to swim to safety after a food swept through their valley and buried their farm in mud. Their pigs and chicks drowned and the smallest children were saved by climbing into a high tree until a neighbor with a boat rescued them. They said they were afraid of the passing cars and trucks, but more afraid of the water."
Abstract The paper discusses the gases that are involved in creating the greenhouse effect. The writer proposes a solution to global warming for the residents of Canada. The paper looks to prove how an expansion of the forests will not only add to the beauty of the country, but will also aid in the reduction of dangerous gases.
From the Paper "Due to it's vastly different climates from one coastline to the other, it is not surprising that Canada has become very interested in the problems of global warming. As a result of global warming, Canada has been struck with heavy heat waves, droughts, floods, and other extreme climate changes. All of these changes effect the lives of the nation in how they live, grow crops, earn livings and save money. Because carbon dioxide has been found to have a large effect on global warming, Canada must increase it's major sinks of carbon dioxide and decrease it's major sources. Research has shown that Canadian boreal forests are currently a sink for carbon dioxide. Due to the fact that these forests are still growing, they are able to hold more carbon, but as they mature this ability to store large amounts will decrease. In addition, if these forests continue to burn down or carry insects, they will become a large source of carbon dioxide, instead of a sink (Hengeveld, 519)."
Abstract The paper first defines and categorizes waves, looking at the different media that can carry waves, such as liquid with waves in the ocean, solid with sound carried through a wall, or gaseous with light traveling through the atmosphere. The writer then gives the mathematical formulae for defining and understanding the way in which waves are formed and travel through space.
From the Paper "There are a number of ways to categorize waves. One method is to categorize them according to the direction of the movement of the individual particles of the medium relative to the direction in which the waves travel. Three categories result: longitudinal waves, transverse waves, and surface waves. A longitudinal wave is a wave in which the particles of the medium move in a direction parallel to the direction in which the wave moves. Sound waves are an example of longitudinal waves. In a transverse wave, the particles of the medium move in a direction perpendicular to the direction in which the wave moves. Transverse waves require a relatively rigid medium in order to transmit energy due to the interaction of the particles that creates the perpendicular movement. As a result, only longitudinal waves flow through gas and the majority of liquids, even waves in the ocean."
Abstract The paper lists the many sources of pollutants that can effect water, from chemicals to sediment from surrounding soil deposits. The writer then looks at the ways in which people are responsible for such pollutants. The paper concludes with a study of how scientists and government lobbyists are attempting to ameliorate the problem.
From the Paper "Heat may also be considered a pollutant when increased temperatures in bodies of water result from the discharge of cooling water by factories and power plants. Although heat seems as if it would be relatively innocuous ? since heat will of course be dissipated from any body of water that it enters relatively quickly, and then further dissipated from the local atmosphere into the larger air basin. However, it must be remembered that raising the temperature of water depletes the oxygen available in it (heated oxygen molecules become excited and "gas out" of the liquid) and water that has a low-oxygen content is as deadly to aquatic creatures as a garage full of carbon monoxide is to a human. Aquatic animals suffering from the effects of thermal pollution may die, and their decomposing bodies will add to the pollutant levels of the body of water."
Abstract Stratovolcanoes, so called because they are formed by alternating layers, or strata, of lava flows, volcanic ash, cinders, blocks, and bombs, are composite volcanoes. Some prominent examples of stratovolcanoes include Mount Fuji in Japan, Mount Cotopaxi in Ecuador, Mount Shasta in California, Mount Hood in Oregon, Mount St. Helen and Mount Rainier, both in Washington State. This paper provides an overview of these geographic forms, including the different shapes the found in and their physical make-up. The paper also looks at what happens when a stratovolcano erupts.
From the Paper "Lava flows either through breaks in the crater wall or from fissures on the sides of the cone, and lava which solidifies within the fissures forms ribs, or dikes, which greatly strengthen the volcano's walls. If a stratovolcano remains dormant for a long period, the cone is destroyed by erosion, hardened magma fills the conduits, and fissures filled with magma become exposed. After a prolonged period of dormancy, all that remains is the plug and dike complex."
Abstract This paper discusses the various geological processes that form the features and natural resources of the Great Lakes and provides a summary of the geologic history of the area. The Great Lakes are a chain of inland lakes, including Lake Ontario, Lake Erie, Lake Huron, Lake Michigan and Lake Superior which stretch from New York to Minnesota.
Spanning a surface area of 95,000 square miles, the five lakes represent the greatest stretch of fresh water on the planet.
Outline
Introduction
Geological Processes and Characteristics
Brief Geological History
Geology of the Great Lakes
Conclusion
From the Paper "Observation of existing ice sheets and glaciers indicate that they invariably flow downhill from elevated regions (Cox, 1999). Still, the postulated, hypothetical flow of the ice of the glacial theory was uphill out of basins and depressions like the basin of Lake Ontario. The ice is assumed to have flowed uphill out of Lake Ontario, over the steep cliffs of the Niagara Escarpment, and flowed uphill towards the area of northwestern New York. There are many geologic characteristics of the Great Lakes, including bedrock. The geologic setting of the Great Lakes basins began billions of years ago, with the formation of bedrock. The foundation for the present Great Lakes basin began about three billion years ago, during the Precambrian Era. Most bedrock is made up of sedimentary rock of Paleozoic age (which can be up to 600 million years old). However, the rock around Lake Superior, the deepest of the Great Lakes, is much older igneous and metamorphic rock, Pre-Cambrian in age (up to two billion years old)."
Abstract This paper discusses the method of scientific thinking in theories surrounding the extinction of the dinosaur. It examines several theories, from the outlandish (mental disorders, constipation, mass suicide) to the most widely accepted ones (climatic changes, gradual die-out). The author then combines two theories to create one of his own (a shift in the earth's orbit which initiated climatic and biological changes).
From the Paper "Over the years our ability to gather evidence from the geologic record has increased. New evidence can do many things to our ideas. It can reinforce them or invalidate them or even create new directions for truth seekers to go. The more valid theories fall into two categories, gradual die out and sudden catastrophic event. Most geologic changes occur gradually so this fact alone gives these theories some credibility. Climactic changes can be devastating over long periods of time, as can biological changes."
Abstract Because of its rich natural resources, South Africa has long been the victim of social, economic and political exploitation. European settlers in the 17th century took advantage of the country's location as a port and also began to exploit its rich land for agricultural purposes at the expense of the country's native population. The discovery of gold and diamonds in the 19th century made the situation much worse and the new economy found the natives becoming virtual slaves while their country became colonial. The eventual culmination of this colonialism, apartheid, would have devastating effects on the economic and political power of the natives, power which is being slowly restored by a more sympathetic and modern government.
Abstract Precambrian rocks underlie Texas, which are more than 600 million years old. The deformed ancient volcanic and intrusive igneous rocks and sedimentary rocks were formed early in the Earth's history. They are now exposed in the Llano Uplift and in a few small areas in Trans-Pecos Texas.
Abstract This paper reports the dates and types of eruptions emitted by the volcano Vesuvius throughout its history. The paper examines the possibility of future eruptions.
Abstract This paper is on the geological feature that occurs in the state of New Mexico. It includes the information about the mountains, mountains range, volcano, and area of unusual landscapes, white sands, and Carlsbad Caverns. It also include the information about its physical dimensions, age, how it formed, its structure and history, and what it is like today.
