Abstract The following paper gives the reader a brief history of coal and its uses. It also analyzes the refining technique known as the Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle or IGCC as well as some history and new technologies associated with this fossil fuel.
From the Paper "Coal is a sedimentary organic rock that contains a lot of carbon, typically between 40 and 90 percent carbon by weight. Ancient plants and animals accumulating in moist peat bogs form coal. As plants die off in a wet area, they pile up into peat. It takes between 4,000 and 100,000 years for one meter of peat to accumulate. This process happens best in river deltas or coastal plains. Over time, further deposits compress these peat seams and the carbon content of the coal is concentrated. The older the coal gets, generally, the harder and blacker it gets. There are four "ranks" of coal. Listed from lowest to highest rank, they are: lignite, subbituminous, bituminous, and anthracite. Rank is determined by energy content and chemical composition. Lignite is the youngest form of coal and is soft and brown, not much different than dried peat. Lignite has a low energy content, typically about 13 million Btu per ton. The carbon content is low also, around 40 percent. Lignite is typically used only when higher grades of coal are not available or affordable. Subbituminous coal is common in the US. It has an energy content of about 18 million Btu per ton, and is used mostly in coal-fired power plants. Bituminous coal is the most widespread form in the US and is high in energy content, averaging 24 million Btu per ton. Bituminous and subbituminous account for most coal use in America. The hardest coal, anthracite, is found mostly in Pennsylvania, but most supplies of anthracite there have been exhausted. The energy content is high, around 23 million Btu per ton, but it tends to have a high sulfur content. It is more than 90 percent carbon. "
Abstract This paper explores the article "Until We Know More About Global Warming, the Best Policy is a Highly Flexible One", written for "The Chronicle of Higher Education", by Warwick J. McKibbin and Peter J. Wilcoxen. It reviews the authors? discussion on the social and economic problems of global warming. It also reviews their comments on the effects of global warming on the environment and the global economy. Furthermore, the paper looks at the authors? reasons for their views. The paper concludes with an evaluation on the worth of these views by the writer.
From the Paper "The article is one of the superbly written socio-economic principles that emerge every now and again from scientists and economists who have very little left to debate. As a result they bring forth the ideals and personalities that they feel should be discussed and leave out the basic issues as to how it truly effects the environment and also the inhabitants of the planet.
"The writers of the article are more concerned with the economics of the policies rather than the logistics. However it is a reasonably well written article that will undoubtedly leave those that can understand the socio-economic jargon feeling either some what perplexed, angered or concurring."
Abstract This paper help explains how Plate Tectonics has caused changes in continental landmasses through geological occurrences. It presents the main controversy in the Plate tectonic theory - whether the movement of the plates has displaced landmass across the continents or not and whether it is the sole reason for the change of the landmass or it is through atmospheric influence.
From the Paper "Thousands of years ago the earth's surface has been hypothesized as one big landmass. The Earth's surface has been constant motion. ?Fragmented into giant sheets of solid rock that glide atop a layer of hotter, more pliable material, the globe's appearance is forever changing.? [Cowen, 1999] . These plates are semi rigid, floated on flow of mantle. The plates measured around 50 miles, thickness of 25 miles on land and 4 miles thick under the oceans. Their movement was categorized by an average of a few inches a year. Even today, geologists and tectonicists hypothesize the earth to continue this movement in similar slow manner, even if we do not notice it. The plates? movement is called the Plate Tectonic Theory, a theory presented in 1912 but upheld in 1960 . "
From the Paper "Analysis: Effect of Mt. Hood Eruption on Atmosphere
Introduction
Each of three major eruptive periods at Mount Hood (12,000-
15,000), 1,500-1,800, and 200-300 years ago) produced dacite
domes, pyroclastic flows, and mudflows, but virtually no pumice.
Most of the fine lithic ash that mantles the slopes of the volcano and the adjacent mountains fell from ash clouds that accompanied the pyroclastic flows. Widely scattered pumice lapilli that are present at the ground surface on the south, east, and north sides of Mount Hood may have been erupted during the mid-1800's, when the last known activity of the volcano occurred (REPORT: Recent Eruptive History..., 1998).
The geologically recent history of Mount Hood suggests that
the most likely eruptive event in the future will be the .."
From the Paper "Springtime storms can be exceptionally severe. These atmospheric disturbances may be associated with low pressure, unstable air, southwesterly airflow, and occluded fronts. In addition to severe turbulence, they can spawn both thunderstorms and tornadoes. Although hurricanes are larger and generally cause more property damage, springtime storms can potentially result in a greater loss of life. They may, in fact, produce the most violent weather in the United States.
Individual storms can exhibit considerable variability (Whitaker & Dole, 1995, p. 1178). However, certain factors are thought to promote severe storm formation. Such circumstances may relate to atmospheric pressure, temperature, and wind direction. In addition, meso-scale features can also play a..."
From the Paper "The El Ni o Southern Oscillation phenomenon affects the global climate; it is important that scientists, economists and medical personnel understand El Ni o implications on the climate. The El Ni o phenomenon is part of the larger climatic phenomenon known as the Southern Oscillation. The joint actions of these two weather phenomenon are known as ENSO (El Ni o-Southern Oscillation) events. The extreme weather patterns which can be produced by an ENSO event can cause devastation around the world. El Ni o is associated with ecological, economic, and medical disasters that coincide with torrential floods in the eastern Pacific, devastating droughts over the western tropical Pacific, and unusual weather throughout the rest of the world (6, 4). Teleconnection to most of the world's climate mean that changes in the El Ni o-Southern Oscillation are felt globally."
Abstract This research reviews the literature relevant to the relationship between global warming and ocean circulation. Global warming is considered both in the context of natural warming and warming induced by human activity.
From the Paper "GLOBAL WARMING & OCEAN CIRCULATION
This research reviews the literature relevant to the relationship between global warming and ocean circulation. Global warming is considered both in the context of natural warming and warming induced by human activity.
The circulation of the ocean normally involves the sinking of cold water in higher latitudes and the replacement of that cold water with warm water from lower latitudes (Schneider, 1989). This process "allows the inflow of warn surface currents that in turn warm the air above and held maintain relatively ice-free conditions" in the higher latitudes (Schneider, 1989, p. 47). These ocean currents cause regions such as western Europe to have moderate climates while other regions at similar latitudes, such as Siberia and northern Canada, have harsh, cold climates. The ..."
From the Paper "This paper is an examination of the press coverage of the 1906 San Francisco earthquake and fire, a devastating natural disaster that remains vivid in the public memory in part because of the destruction it caused and in part because of the detailed journalistic record that kept the public informed of the unfolding events. The earthquake occurred just as American journalism was coming into its own as a serious institution, and, while press coverage of the time still used some of the sensationalistic language and irresponsible tactics that had been the accepted way of reporting the news, the majority of the coverage was relatively accurate. Examining the ways in which the press covered this terrifying milestone in history provides a fascinating glimpse into the nature and purpose of modern journalism."
Abstract This paper explains that the fossil records tell us that, through out the geological history of earth, mass extinctions have been the norm rather than the exception. This paper states that a better understanding of the role extinction plays in evolution is essential. The author concludes that human beings are uniquely adaptable; they invent procedures as medicine that give them extended control over their environments.
From the Paper "Of course, the most famous extinction event is that of the dinosaurs, about 65 million years ago. Such events appear in the fossil record as far back as Precambrian time when it is believed that life first began. Ideas of mass extinction has been an issue of controversy between many geologists towards the idea that it is related to intermittent catastrophes such as the striking of the earth's surface by a large asteroid or comet. Many paleontologists and evolutionary theorists reject such ideas and believe them to be unjustified."
This paper examines issues of water pollution and its control, with particular emphasis on Los Angeles: Types and sources of pollution, effects, regulations, sewage system, hazardous waste, water quality management, control methods and politics.
1,012 words (approx. 4 pages), 11 sources, 1984, $ 135.95
From the Paper "The purpose of this research is to examine issues of water pollution and its control, with particular emphasis on these issues in Los Angeles in recent years. Before discussing the problems of Los Angeles, this paper will focus on the major types of water pollution, the sources of water pollution, and the effects of water pollution. Following an extended discussion of control and problems in Los Angeles, this paper will discuss methods of water pollution control. It will conclude with a brief consideration of the politics and economics of water pollution in the United States over the past twenty-five years."
Examines the causes & climatic effects of heated ocean current in general & specifically the 1982-1983 example. Discusses drought, animals, sea life and weather prediction.
1,125 words (approx. 4.5 pages), 5 sources, 1987, $ 39.95
From the Paper "One of the most fascinating and far-reaching weather phenomena to occur in recent years has been that of El Ni"o. This paper will briefly describe what this phenomenon is, and specifically discuss the 1982-1983 El Ni"o which caused extreme changes in the Earth's oceans and atmosphere and often widespread devastation on land.
"El Ni"o is Spanish for "The Child," a reference to the Christ child, so named by South Americans because this ocean current is felt off their coast around Christmastime. According to Dr. Eugene Rasmussen of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, it occurs in cycles of about every four to five years and can be two years apart or as many as 10. The last El Ni"o occurred in 1976-1977 when the eastern United States had its worst winter and California its worst drought (Canby 153)."
From the Paper "Thunderstorms are impressive and terrifying natural phenomena. Rattling the earth with sharp, explosive sounds of thunder, and lighting up the sky with electric bolts of lightning. As Mark Twain once said, "Thunder is good, thunder is impressive, but it's lightning that does the work."
Thunderstorms are defined in terms of their electrical manifestations which in fact are a product of the storm itself. The development of a thunderstorm is a continuous process but there are three recognizable stages through which the storm goes ((Hidore).
The first stage is the cumulus stage. During this stage cumulus clouds become larger and taller. There is a general updraft throughout the cloud formation and condensation in the form of water particles. The updrafts are strongest toward the (...)"
From the Paper "The ruby is one of the two stones categorized under the heading of corundum-- sapphire is the other. Ruby and sapphire may appear to be quite different but are in fact color varieties of the same mineral, chemically and physically the same, differing only in the amount of impurities they contain. It is in fact the chemical impurities that give them their value, for pure corundum is colorless. Corundum is a relatively abundant mineral. It is surpassed only by diamonds in hardness, so tons are mined each year to be used as an abrasive. The hardness contributes as well to the value of the gems consisting of this mineral. Corundum is composed of two light elements, aluminum and oxygen, and the close packing of these elements along with the strong bonding of the atoms are what give the gems their hardness and specific gravity. The ruby and the sapphire have long been prize ... "
From the Paper "The Yosemite Valley is the product of many geological forces. One such is glacial scouring, which left the spectacular glaciated granite terrain that can be seen today. Valley glaciers have been described as "tongues of ice in mountain ranges [that] start in ice-worn rock basins called cirques". In these cirques, old snow develops into firn, or nev?, a "mass of ice pellets compacted by the weight of the snow above".
As more snow falls on the firn, it spills over into the valley below, filling it with ice. As this ice moves across the landscape, it collects rock debris, which polishes and scours the valley walls and floor. This scratching action leaves a definitive calling card in the form of grooves that identify ... "
The impact of the sun's energy on the layers of Earth's atmosphere including Physics, absorption and evaporation, sunspots, the ozone layer and magnetism.
2,700 words (approx. 10.8 pages), 3 sources, 1991, $ 95.95
From the Paper "Solar Radiation and the Atmousphere
As the earth's nearest star, the sun determines much of what happens on the earth--its energy is what allows continued life on the earth, and its actions create the earth's weather, in the form of wind, clouds, and other climatic examples. The sun's warmth and energy are so important that without them the earth would become encased in ice (1:74). However, the earth is not completely open to solar radiation. The different layers of the earth's atmosphere provide different interactions (and different results from those interactions) with solar radiation.
The earth's atmosphere, the receiving end of the sun's radiation, is divided into four parts: the troposphere, which is the bottom-most layer and extends from the earth's surface to about 11 kilometers high (at which point the stratosphere..."
