Abstract Discusses Russia as the world's single, largest non-OPEC oil exporter. Examines privatization since the mid-1990s and U.S. investment for exploration, equipment, and rehabilitation of oil fields. Includes the planned Caspian Sea Pipeline.
From the Paper " Russia is currently the world's single-largest non-OPEC (Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries) oil exporter, with 10 percent of currently known reserves and 9 percent of world output (Aron, 2002). For about a ..."
Abstract This paper looks at the vital role that the oceans play regarding the regulation and control of the world's temperature, winds, and precipitation.
From the Paper "Through the agency of ocean currents, heat and cold may be distributed over thousands of miles, for it is possible to follow the course of a mass of warm water that originates in the trade wind belt of the southern hemisphere, where a good portion of the Atlantic and Pacific oceans can be found. This redistributing function of the ocean tends to compensate for the uneven heating of the globe by the sun. As it is, ocean currents carry hot equatorial water toward the poles and return cold water equatorward by surface drifts, such as the Labrador Current, and other deep water currents."
Abstract This paper explains that tornado observation and study date back more than three centuries. The author points out that the mechanism of a tornado is relatively simple when compared to the damage it does; a thunderstorm that has air pushed up into its storm over and over again provides the stage for tornado formation. The paper relates that, with storm chasers on the ground, airplanes in the sky, and current technology, the world knows more than ever before about the scariest natural disaster on earth.
Table of Contents
Introduction
Background
Mechanism
Conclusion
From the Paper "Tornadoes form during the updraft stage of a thunderstorm. The updraft air begins to rotate and when this rotation occurs it forms something called a vortex. Wind shear is when the wind speed changes and the direction and height change. Wind shear is what maintains the vortex formation. While this occurs the rising air and up currents that are inside the cloud flow move in direction of the wind. This can all happen many miles above the earth while those below are innocent to its formation."
Abstract Geothermal energy is described as the natural, internal heat of the earth that is trapped in rock formations deep within the crust, but only a fraction of this vast storehouse of energy can be extracted. The paper looks at the way this energy source is used and the limitations of its widespread use.
From the Paper "In recent years, the use of geothermal or natural steam power has greatly advanced. Deep wells have been driven at the Geysers region in northern California where the capacity has been estimated to be over 400,000 kilowatts. In addition, the use of geothermal steam power has been used to some extent in New Zealand, Japan, Mexico and Italy where recent efforts have been made to develop geothermal power as an alternative to burning fossil fuels, due to the fact that geothermal power is extremely clean and moderately cheap to harness."
Abstract This paper claims that environmental oil spills are one of the most hazardous and preventable accidents that occur. The paper explains that, although there are a number of agencies that support the ongoing transport of oil via major waterways, by and large, such transport often leads to devastating consequences. The paper describes the importance of the establishment of stringent protocols for the safe transport of oil across waterways. The paper contends that environmental protection agencies need to work in collaboration with tanking and shipping organizations to ensure that every measure is taken to protect the environment from the hazardous effects of oil spills.
From the Paper "Many oil tanker companies and major corporations such as Exxon have adopted protective measures to help guard against spills in the future. Despite these efforts however spills, small or large in nature continue to occur. Exxon even had another oil spill that was much smaller, but a spill nonetheless a few years after the Valdez disaster. Most of the companies involved in spills argue that the environment and ecosystems affected can recovery quickly and efficiently, and that most environments can return to a normal state of existence as they were before a spill. It is according to Dicks (1998) unrealistic to define recovery as a return to pre-spill conditions but rather recovery is defined as the re-establishment of a healthy biological community in which the plants and animals characteristic of that community are present and functioning normally (Dicks, 1998:2). Generally the area will not have the same composition or structure that was present prior to a spill and continues to change over time."
Abstract This paper describes the different steps in the process of global warming, describes its primary causes, and explains how the problem of global warming is exacerbated by the effects of global warming in the Arctic.
From the Paper "Global warming is no myth. Since the Industrial Revolution, the earth's average surface temperature has risen about one degree Fahrenheit, "with accelerated warming during the past two decades," according to the United States Environmental Protection Agency ("Climate"). Most of the global warming that has occurred over the past several decades is a direct product of human activities: factory emissions and automobile emissions especially. The emissions from factories and automobiles create what are known as "greenhouse gases," mainly carbon dioxide. The earth actually has a natural "greenhouse effect," a layer of the earth's atmosphere that keeps surface temperatures warm enough for biological life as we know it. Without a natural greenhouse effect, Earth surface temperatures would be far lower than they are now. However, the overall rise in the Earth's surface temperatures since the Industrial Revolution has occurred far faster than it would have without human intervention. Accelerated global warming can have dire consequences for life on earth. For example, according to Kate Ravillous of New Scientist, the west coast of the United States could suffer a severe water shortage by 2050 due to global warming. Most of the culprits of global warming exist in the most heavily industrialized and populated parts of the world such as the United States and Eastern Europe. However, the geological and environmental factors that directly cause global warming occur in one of the most sparsely populated regions of the globe: the Arctic. Global warming begins with anthropogenic factors such as auto emissions, proceeds to rising Arctic surface and air temperatures, and becomes magnified by several positive feedback mechanisms. In fact, if left unchecked, global warming in the Arctic will account for most of the damage incurred by the phenomenon world wide because of the positive feedback mechanism."
Abstract This paper describes the coral reef ecosystem, briefly discussing its history, structural characteristics, and how it benefits humans. The paper then discusses the current status of coral reefs, explaining how almost all the coral reef ecosystems are threatened because of pollution and over fishing. Finally, the paper talks about what is being done to protect the reefs as well as what still needs to be done.
Introduction
Structural Characteristics
Benefits to Humans
Current Status
What Should be Done?
How is the U.S. Government Helping?
How Can We All Help?
From the Paper "Coral reefs are one of the oldest ecosystems in the world, existing for more than 450 million years. A coral reef is a type of biotic reef that develops in tropical waters. Coral reefs are found in all oceans of the world, generally between the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn because the reef-building corals are living in this waters. A water temperature of 20 to 28?C is needed for growth of the coral reef. Massive reef structures are built over thousands of years by tiny coral polyps aided by minute algae called zooxanthellae that live in their tissues, calcifying algae, and other organisms that secrete calcium carbonate and adhesives. The process of reef formation is heavily dependent upon photosynthesis by reef-building organisms. Once formed, the complex, rock-like reef framework provides food and shelter for the multitudes of organisms that inhabit the reef. "
Abstract Genetically modified foods have emerged as a topic of great controversy in recent years. As agricultural technology grows by leaps and bounds, the presence of enhanced and or modified foods becomes more ubiquitous at grocery stores and on dinner tables. However, this proliferation has been met with concern by many people who fear that the new foodstuffs will have environmental ethical and human consequences that the proponents of such items are as yet dimly aware. This paper explores the environmental implications of genetically modified food.
Abstract This essay examines a marine ecosystem and a forest ecosystem and identifies and ranks the three most important ecosystem services that are provided by these two systems, describing the nature of the relationship between two of the ecosystem services and the well being of humans. Furthermore, the essay discusses the most significant direct and indirect drivers of degradation within the two systems and discuss the scenarios that would best protect them as well as the scenarios that are most likely to happen.
Abstract A category-4 hurricane named Katrina exploded onto land August 29th, damaging large parts of Louisiana, Mississippi and Alabama. With 145-mph winds, huge storm surges and torrential rains that flooded whole towns, Katrina left hundreds dead or missing, more than one million others temporarily homeless, and caused at least $25 billion in damage. This paper relates that many of the people in the affected areas who died could have been saved and the damage could have been less devastating if the government's response had been planned with more awareness and sensitivity of the known destruction of hurricanes. The paper contends that Hurricane Katrina changed the Gulf Coast area forever because local authorities did not establish better communication systems with other government departments for help before the storm hit and because superior evacuation policies were not set up in the cities that would be most affected. The paper also examines how President Bush and his cabinet were not fully prepared to deal with the high level of responsiveness that was needed for the residents of the affected areas.
From the Paper "The communication between all government divisions was so badly executed that Federal and State officials have blamed each other for the disastrously poor response in New Orleans and neighboring states. Louisiana Governor Kathleen Blanco and New Orleans Mayor Ray Nagin have blamed the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) for the slow response. Federal officials said that initial evacuation and hurricane preparation plans were the responsibility of Louisiana and New Orleans authorities. Also, the Feds blame those officials for not asking for the help of the federal government soon enough, and for not being more specific when they eventually requested help. It was not a matter of pointing fingers and worrying about who was responsible for handling the preparation of the evacuation; it was a matter of helping the people of New Orleans and assisting them in the evacuation, which again shows that the law enforcement was not prepared as well as they should have been to minimize the damage and destruction of the hurricane. "
Abstract To understand the extent of devastation of the 17 October 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake, we must consider all the factors that played a role in the damage. This includes the history of the local geology around the Marina District of San Francisco, where the most damage from the quake had taken place, and also the geology and tectonics of the surrounding faults. The purpose of this paper is to illustrate the geology before the quake, evaluate its aftermath, and predict what may happen in the near future.
Abstract This paper presents a detailed look at the group of fossils in a certain are of the Grand Canyon in the United States. The paper concentrates on the paleontology of these fossils and their uniqueness.
From the Paper "The Grand Canyon Supergroup is a thick sequence of Precambrian strata located in-between overlying Paleozoic rocks and underlying crystalline rocks. This Supergroup is comprised mainly by the Nankoweap Formation and the Chuar Group that include three sub-formations and seven members. These formations, groups, and members still puzzle many geologists and paleontologists for their is no conclusive evidence regarding the Supergroup's formation as well as classifying some of the fossils found there. The 2100 meters of the Grand Canyon Supergroup is still undergoing extensive research and will until all the mysteries surrounding it are solved."
Abstract The following paper looks at the devastating effects of Hurricane Mitch and examines how the shocks are still being felt to this day in Central America. The author contends that no matter how much we progress against the rage of nature we are unprotected.
From the paper:
"The calamity that hit the Central American nations in October 1998 took suffering to a new height. Though an accurate toll is still hard to calculate--and as many as 10,000 people were estimated to be dead in the battered countries of Nicaragua and Honduras, while as many as 2 million may be were made homeless after the relentless rains of Hurricane Mitch. In much lesser degrees, calamity also visited El Salvador and Guatemala. In all, the storm wrought $3 billion in damage--more than half the combined Nicaraguan and Honduran gross domestic products--and devastated at least two-thirds of those countries' public infrastructure."
Abstract This paper is mostly about seasonal weather effects on humans. It discusses the correlation between long dark winters and suicide rates, seasonal affective disorder, the lowering of immunity from infections in cold weather and the spread of disease in hot weather. Also mentioned are the effects on animals of El Nino and how weather changes bring certain predators and prey closer together.
From the paper;
"Weather is the No. 1 talked about topic among people. Just for small talk and conversation's sake, the state of the weather is always brought up. Weather has a deeper effect on animals than determining what to wear for the day or providing a topic of conversation. During the winter, people claim to have cabin fever. When spring arrives, they catch spring fever. While these two terms have taken on meaning as figures of speech, there is scientific research showing that weather effects humans and animals on a physiological and psychological level. Weather changes alter mood, behavior, and general well being. In certain climates, people tend to be healthier than others."
Tags: El, Nino, disease, depression, seasons, temperature
Abstract The following paper gives the reader a brief history of coal and its uses. It also analyzes the refining technique known as the Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle or IGCC as well as some history and new technologies associated with this fossil fuel.
From the Paper "Coal is a sedimentary organic rock that contains a lot of carbon, typically between 40 and 90 percent carbon by weight. Ancient plants and animals accumulating in moist peat bogs form coal. As plants die off in a wet area, they pile up into peat. It takes between 4,000 and 100,000 years for one meter of peat to accumulate. This process happens best in river deltas or coastal plains. Over time, further deposits compress these peat seams and the carbon content of the coal is concentrated. The older the coal gets, generally, the harder and blacker it gets. There are four "ranks" of coal. Listed from lowest to highest rank, they are: lignite, subbituminous, bituminous, and anthracite. Rank is determined by energy content and chemical composition. Lignite is the youngest form of coal and is soft and brown, not much different than dried peat. Lignite has a low energy content, typically about 13 million Btu per ton. The carbon content is low also, around 40 percent. Lignite is typically used only when higher grades of coal are not available or affordable. Subbituminous coal is common in the US. It has an energy content of about 18 million Btu per ton, and is used mostly in coal-fired power plants. Bituminous coal is the most widespread form in the US and is high in energy content, averaging 24 million Btu per ton. Bituminous and subbituminous account for most coal use in America. The hardest coal, anthracite, is found mostly in Pennsylvania, but most supplies of anthracite there have been exhausted. The energy content is high, around 23 million Btu per ton, but it tends to have a high sulfur content. It is more than 90 percent carbon. "
