Abstract This paper discusses the geological evidence supporting the theory that the Cherokee Indians originally immigrated to North America via the Bering Strait, the body of water that separates Siberia from Alaska. The paper also looks at the scientific and anthropological theories of Indian immigration but concludes that the geological theory is not at all implausible.
From the Paper "The Cherokee Indians were heirchial with each man's place being determined by his persoanl achievements in war and in hunting. The Cherokee knew that the resources of the earth were finite and wisely used the gifts of the earth. In the 1978 book entitiled "Americas' Facinating Indian Heritage" stated is that, "The American Indians still live today in "substandard, overcrowded dwellings with minimal sanitation, tuberculosis, influenza and penmonia....the suicide rate among Indian adolescents is 100 times that of whites....alcoholism is common place. " While some of the tribes did receive government settlements eventually many of these did not. (America's Facinating Indian Heritage, 1978 p.396-398) The Cherokee people lived a balanced life that did not take from the earth and environment but left it as they found it in the Cherokee tradition."
This paper reviews and analyzes Simon Winchester's biography, "The Map that Changed the World," which describes how William Smith indelibly changed the face of geological science.
Abstract The writer of this paper examines the life and accomplishments of William Smith, the English geologist credited for creating the first geological map. This paper examines how Smith's maps shifted public perception regarding the creation of the universe. This paper reviews Simon Winchester's biography, "The Map that Changed the World," which summarizes Smith's life, his achievements and the impacts made on the scientific community due to his research. Smith's early work with canal digging companies and within the mining industry enabled him to become more aware of what lie beneath the surface of the land. This paper focuses on Smith's fascination with the earth, rocks and fossils, which led to the creation of his first geological map of Bath. Influenced by other cartography and on extant atlases, Smith devised special colorization systems for his geological maps, which are discussed in this paper. This paper also examines Smith's longing for more recognition than he was afforded during his lifetime. While Smith's maps were published during his lifetime, what should have been the high point of his life marked the beginning of a downward spiral, when many of his personal and professional relationships fell apart. This paper examines why centuries after his death, geologists still pay homage to William Smith, the father of modern geology.
From the Paper "His early work with canal digging companies and within the mining industry enabled William Smith to become more aware of what lie beneath the surface of the land. There could be no better situation for a man who loved geology in the eighteenth century than being paid to dig deep under the ground. Thus, his professional work offered him a private pleasure and a convenient means by which to formulate, develop, and prove his theories. On his own, while he traveled as a surveyor for the Somerset Coal Canal Company, Smith observed how sedimentary layers of rock were arranged in patterns across the land. Somerset Coal Canal Company was not so much interested in the scientific implications for Smith's findings as in their financial implications. For instance, when he was first hired, Smith noticed how English villages rest on top of "a score of complex, broken, twisted, and contorted seams of coal." For Smith, his work meant unlocking some of the earth's deepest secrets."
Abstract The writer of this paper introduces, discusses and analyzes the effects of tornadoes, one of the deadliest atmospheric conditions known to man. This paper also details the event of May 30, 1998 in which a tornado hit the small town of Spencer, North Dakota. This paper examines the differences between tornadoes, hurricanes and cyclones. Tornadoes differ from hurricanes in that they form over land, while hurricanes form over water. This paper explores how tornadoes develop as well as the atmospheric conditions that must occur to form tornadoes, including vast thermal instability, high humidity and the meeting of warm, moist air at low levels with cooler, drier air above. The writer also examines a recent trend, called storm chasing which has become a popular, recreational sport. Professional storm chasers include meteorologists and scientists who study storms to try to discover how to predict them earlier and understand just how they form.
From the Paper "The National Weather Service (NWS) does have certain criteria that indicate certain weather patterns that spawn tornadoes. When these patterns occur, the NWS does issue "tornado watches," which can be upgraded to tornado warnings if the conditions persist or intensify. A warning tells people that a tornado may be imminent and they should take shelter immediately. Experts recommend that small, interior rooms are the best for shelter in the event of a tornado. Basements are good, but people should stay away from windows in any part of the house. Hiding under a heavy piece of furniture can also be a good idea. People are more educated about tornadoes than they were, and so they are better at protecting themselves when tornadoes strike. Many large cities have underground tornado shelters that help save many lives each year."
Abstract This paper examines the positive and negative nature of electricity, which was first identified by Benjamin Franklin. This paper details the basics of lightning, which is a natural occurrence, generated through the two interactive processes of tribo-electricity and electrostatic induction. This paper delves into how thunder clouds are formed by ice and water. This paper also contains an illustration, detailing the origins of lightning, as well as a table listing the dielectric constants of various insulators, relevant to this particular topic.
From the Paper "In a thunder cloud, the two dissimilar materials are ice and liquid water. Most thunderclouds' bottoms are at about 5km above Earth's surface, where it is usually sufficiently cold to freeze any liquid water. Powerful winds circulate up and down the interior of a thunderstorm, bearing up small drops of freezing water which collide with descending hail stones. Even though these two objects are made from water, the fact that one is large and solidly frozen while one is small and only partially frozen means that they occupy different positions on the tribolectric scale. The hail stones tend to become negatively charged and the smaller particles positively so. The negative charge accumulates at the base of the thunderstorm, and the positive at its top. In essence, thunderstorms act like immense Van de Graaff generators."
This paper discusses the possibility of more accurately forecasting weather through the application of Edward Lorenz' chaos theory as based on James Gleick's book "Chaos: Making a New Science".
Abstract This paper explains that James Gleick in his book "Chaos: Making a New Science" reports the work of meteorologist and pioneer of the chaos theory, Edward Lorenz, to computerize the forecasting of weather based on physical laws. The author points out that Gleick explains, even though the straight-forward mathematical attempt by Lorenz to find weather averages was a "failure", Lorenz discovered that the phenomenon of climate instability was related to the chaos theory. The paper relates that Lorenz' two non-linear discoveries are (1) that models of chaotic systems have an exquisitely sensitive dependence on initial dependence called the butterfly effect and (2) that even simple systems can show complex, chaotic behavior proving that the "clockwork" universe doesn't exist.
Table of Contents
Gleick's Belief of the Possibility to Forecast Weather
The Butterfly Effect
Nonlinear and Linear Systems
Similar to Predicting the Motions of Planets
Link between Aperiodic Behavior and Unpredictable Behavior
Thermal Convection
From the Paper "The very act of predicting weather is "fragile" when it comes to computer modeling, even though the data may be "reasonable trustworthy" and the laws of science are "purely physical" (20). But the computer modeling of weather patterns and air movement and temperatures and all the other ingredients that go into the stew, are only good for a day or two; "beyond two or three days the world's best forecasts" are / were speculative, and "beyond six or seven," Gleick writes, "they were worthless." Why were they worthless? "The Butterfly Effect was the reason.""
Abstract This paper studies the Quabbin Reservoir, located sixty-five miles west of Boston, Massachusetts. The paper traces the history and geological construction of the reservoir, beginning in 1939. The paper also examines the reservoir's structural benefits and its ability to supply water to the entire city of Boston. Other aspects studied by the paper include the reservoir's management by various state and local authorities, public access to the reservoir, and predictions for the future of the Quabbin.
From the Paper "There is a long history of cooperation among those agencies concerned with the Ware River watershed, including the Division of Fisheries and Wildlife, the Army Corps of Engineers, and the MA Department of Environmental Management, now the DCR Division of State Parks and Recreation (Executive pp). Maintained, visible boundaries protect the integrity of property, provide a frame of reference for policing and monitoring, and provide essential proof when a dispute or encroachment occurs (Executive pp). The number of MDC Rangers assigned to the Quabbin - Ware River watersheds has grown since 1996 from one to seven, and ranger patrols include pro-active surveillance of DCR/DWSP controlled lands with emphasis on popular access locations around the Ware River watershed (Executive pp). Presently, Watershed Rangers spend an average of 16-20 hours per week covering responsibilities on the Ware River watershed (Executive pp). The DCR has care and control of approximately 57 miles of gravel access road and numerous miles of non-gravel road on the Ware River (Executive pp). Activities that are dependent upon a good access road system include fire protection, forest management, water sampling, research, and ranger patrols (Executive pp). The DCR fire policy, in conjunction with better coordination between DCR, the Division of State Parks Recreation, and local fire departments, has improved fire response time and suppression efforts, and provides assistance to the local fire departments as directed by the local fire chief, usually for mop up operations (Executive pp). At present, twenty-three DCR employees are certified and available to participate in fire suppression operations (Executive pp)."
Abstract This paper analyzes the geology of Sleeping Bear Dunes National Lakeshore, a National Park in Michigan. The paper looks at its size, the geological forces that created the dunes and the impact of glacial activity.
From the Paper "This research reviews the geological characteristics of the Sleeping Bear Dunes National Lakeshore a component of the United States National Park Service "
Abstract In this article the writer discusses the deleterious effects that global warming is having on phytoplankton. The writer explains that phytoplankton is the primary foundation of the earth's food chain. This paper examines the various effects that are taking place on phytoplankton. The writer also mentions the difficulty in conveying the importance of this issue to the regular person in the street.
From the Paper "Trying to rally people to be concerned about global warming is like trying to call out the fire department to put out a fire in a can of sterno. They have no sense of urgency and no concept of the possible consequences, so they refuse to become engaged in the issue. Global warming may indeed be the little fire in the can of sterno, but it is the little fire that precedes full planetary meltdown. If you ignore the initial flame it ... "
Tags: Phytoplankton, global warming, iron, radiation, food chain, acidity, hypoxic
Abstract In this article, the writer describes and discusses limestone rock in Tennessee. The writer looks at the location of limestone, its age and nature and the uses to which limestone is put. The writer also discusses other rocks found in Tennessee.
Introduction
Discussion
Location of Limestone in Tennessee
Dating of Tennessee Limestone
Nature of Tennessee Limestone
Uses of Tennessee Limestone
Other Rocks in Tennessee
Summary and Conclusion
An analysis of the water lifeline that supports millions of dependent inhabitants and industries in what used to be desert wastelands of the North American continent.
Abstract This paper describes the history of the Colorado River and how it came to be the lifeline for the seven southwestern states that rely upon its water. First deserts are defined, then the deserts of the American southwest are described, followed by a thorough analysis of how the river that runs through these deserts was tamed or even "beaten into submission" to provide sustenance for vast developments of former wastelands. The current status of regulation and control over this resource, as well as considerations for the future are discussed.
From the Paper "Geologically speaking rivers and deserts have little in common. When a river runs through a desert, however, and becomes the lifeblood of developments that could not have been created without it, then these two geologic phenomena become intimately related. This study will explore the deserts of the southwest and how the Colorado River contributed to cities and enterprises built in these previously barren lands. Also investigated will be the uses to which Colorado River water is put by the seven southwestern states that rely on this lifeline. Of major concern is the importance of this resource to the continued survival of all these consumers of water and the questions of future security and plans for conservation of this most valuable resource."
Abstract This paper treats the issue of endangered wildlife and examines the status of the American Alligator, the Bald Eagle, and the Indiana Bat, three species named on the Arkansas Game and Fish Commission's (AGFC) list of "Species of Special Concern." The paper relates that both Arkansas' state government and that of the United States have attempted to establish policies that will ensure the protection of American wildlife. The paper attempts to prove that while a few of these policies have provided some safety for endangered wildlife, most have proven unsuccessful and in desperate need of serious change.
From the Paper "The American Alligator is perhaps the most impressive success story of the attempts of both the federal government and the Arkansas Game and Fish Commission to protect an endangered species. The alligators, which are indigenous to the marshy areas of southern states like Florida and Louisiana, weren't threatened until alligator skin became fashionable, and thus, valuable, in the 1920's. Over a relatively short period of time, the southern marshes were full of 'hide-hunters,' who "decimated the species" (www.agfc.state.ar.us, 11-01-04). Finally, in 1967, alligators were declared an endangered species and granted protection.
Abstract In this article, the writer discusses the location and geographical setting of Mount Vesuvius. The writer examines the violent nature of the volcano and looks at its geological cycle. Further, the writer discusses the history of Mount Vesuvius and looks at the people who lived in its vicinity over the years. The writer concludes that despite the overwhelming chances that Mount Vesuvius will eventually erupt again, perhaps creating even worse destruction than in the past, the people of the Bay of Naples and those that live in the scattered villages and towns of the Vesuvian plains have chosen to remain. The writer claims that perhaps, as has been said about Vesuvius over the years, there is a magical quality about the mountain which draws people to it, yet those that choose to live and work under Vesuvius do so at their own peril as the volcanic clock continues to tick toward yet another eruption.
From the Paper "Geologically, Mount Vesuvius is classified as sub-plinian which is associated with higher eruption columns which create extensive sheets of tephra deposits, "pyroclastic rocks which fall to the ground from eruption clouds in the form of ash and pumice" . Most sub-plinian eruption columns are sustained for long periods and can rise heights of over thirty kilometers. Large volumes of tephra may be erupted in sustained blasts in the form of new magmatic material rather than shattered bits of old rock. Because the degree of fragmentation is less than in vulcanian eruptions, clast sizes (rock fragments) are generally larger at a given distance from the main vent. Various types of magmas are involved in this process, but generally, more mafic compositions (a high magnesium and iron content) exist.
However, sub-plinian eruptions, such as those exhibited by Mount Vesuvius, are not necessarily of less consequence than normal plinian activity. Vesuvius also has what is called an irregular volcanic cycle, being twenty-five to thirty years of general non-activity followed by a full-blown eruptive phase when great columns of ash and pumice rise far above the city of Naples. Of course, Vesuvius, throughout its long geologic history, has erupted many times there is much well-founded concern about what will happen when the next eruption occurs which cannot be predicted with absolute certainty."
Abstract The paper examines what exactly a tsunami is, how tsunami waves are caused and the extent of the destruction that it may cause when it is formed and unleashed. The paper explains that a tsunami is a giant killer wave which causes large amounts of water to surge inland. The tsunami can kill people and destroy property and although there is nothing that can be done to prevent its occurrence, an early warning system may be sufficient to protect people and property. The paper concludes that the emphasis today must be more on installing more such systems so that people may live without fear of being engulfed at any moment by a destructive wave.
Contents:
What is a Tsunami?
Why Does a Tsunami occur, and What Causes It?
Examples of Killer Tsunamis and the Destruction That They Can Cause
The Need of an Early Warning System
Conclusion
From the Paper "As already mentioned, a Tsunami is a giant wave that may occur in the ocean, or even in other large water bodies. It is a Japanese term that means 'water in the harbor', and it is also known in some parts of the world as a 'tidal wave' or a 'seismic sea wave'. A tsunami can in fact be categorized as being either regional, or local, or Pacific wide and the extent of the damage wreaked by the tsunami would define the term to be used. Regional tsunamis are quite common, and the destruction that it may bring is generally restricted to an aerial area. Local tsunamis are also awesome, and one example of a local tsunami is the July 9th 1958 local tsunami at Lituya Bay, Alaska. The wave run up is said to have exceeded nearly 485 meters, but the destruction was confined to within a restricted area. Pacific wide tsunamis are much rarer, but the destruction that such tsunamis may bring about is horrific and horrendous. (About Tsunamis: Pacific Tsunami Warning Center)"
Abstract This paper examines the failures of the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), as witnessed by Americans in the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina. The article lists a timeline of events following the hurricane, as well as enumerates the errors made by FEMA and its results for the people of New Orleans.
From the Paper "Chicago was not the only city to offer help and be declined . In the days following the hurricane, several local and state governments, corporations and nonprofit organizations across the United States offered to help in the relief effort, only to be declined by federal officials, who actually provided very little aid to the needy victims of the hurricane. Claiming security concerns, the Department of Homeland Security prevented the American Red Cross from entering New Orleans with food and supplies. Five hundred Floridian airboaters were prepared to rescue stranded victims, but FEMA turned them down. Many other cities and groups also had their offers refused."
Abstract The paper describes how metals exist in the form of minerals in the earth's crust, a metal ore being a highly concentrated mineral form of the metal. The paper explains how extraction of metals from its ore depends upon the quality of the ore and that the ores obtained from the ground contain unwanted impurities called gangue. The paper discusses the various methods of extracting these impurities from the metal.
Table of Contents:
Concentration
a. Gravity Separation or Hydraulic Washing
b. Froth Flotation
c. Magnetic Separation
d. Chemical Separation
Roasting or Calcination
Reduction of Mineral to the Metal
a. Electrolytic Reduction
b. Chemical Reduction (Smelting)
c. Auto-reduction(Smelting)
Refining
From the Paper In this method, a Wilfley table is used .It is a sloping table and its top is corrugated or riffled in the direction of the slope. The crushed ore is then placed on the top of this table, which is always kept vibrating. "Then water is made to flow across the table at right angles to the top. The lighter gangue particles are thrown upwards at every jerk and carried across the table by the stream of water, while the heavier ore particles move towards the bottom of the table. Thus separation takes place when the ore reaches the bottom. This method is useful for dense ores like Cassiterite (SnO2).
Hydraulic classifier."
