Abstract The writer of this paper details the exploration of the ocean floor which began in the 1940s and aided scientists in developing the theory of plate tectonics. This paper explores how the work of researchers like Albert Wegener and James Hutton and the study of plate tectonics helped predict with some degree of accuracy where and when an earthquake will strike as well as predict which of the world's active volcanoes will erupt, saving countless lives.
Topics covered in this report include:
The Theory of Continental Drift
This Dynamic Earth-Developing the Theory
Plate Tectonics
Works Cited
From the Paper "Abraham Ortelius, a Dutch mapmaker, first suggested the possibility that the earth's landmasses were not fixed in 1520. He suggested that the Americas were once attached to Africa and Europe. They were then ripped apart by earthquakes and floods, creating three continents. It wasn't until the early part of this century, when a German meteorologist named Alfred L. Wegener became intrigued by this concept and the ideas set forth by other scientists that land bridges had been connected the continents at one time, but had then sunk into the ocean."
Abstract The paper explains that volcanoes are not just a distant phenomenon; they are common in the American Northwest, too. The writer finds the author's explanations of technical geoscience topics lucid and understandable, and is impressed with the overall tone of the book. In conclusion, the paper shows the book by Harris to be one that lives up to its promise.
From the Paper "Contrary to popular and widespread belief, volcanoes have erupted practically everywhere in the world, including America. What is even more disturbing is that there are several areas in the U.S. Pacific Coast where volcanoes have the potential to violently erupt and trigger widespread devastation throughout the region. "In his book, Harris provides readers with a powerful and persuasive argument that the entire Cascade Range and other parts of the U.S. Pacific Coast are vulnerable to volcanic eruptions that besides unspeakable destruction, could result in darkened and polluted skies wreaking havoc on our respiratory systems - and much more."
Tags: eruption, St., Helen's, Pacific, Washington, Oregon, California
Abstract In this paper the author starts with an in-depth description of what a tsunami is and how it is caused. The author clearly defines that a tsunami is not a tidal wave. He then goes on to focus on the tsunamis that have occurred off the coast of Japan and what devastation they have brought to the local population. The paper concludes with a look at modern geology and how it can be used to try and prevent further tsunami disasters or at least how populations can be pre-warned.
From the Paper "The Okushiri tsunami demonstrates how Japan, and many other nations threatened by tsunamis, have started to try to deal with these potent natural phenomena. Survey teams, including experts from Japan and the United States, were on the scene within hours of the quake and tsunami. The American scientists were part of the U.S-Japan Cooperative Program in Natural Resources (UJNR). They took measurements and eyewitness testimony to document the exact nature and extent of the disaster"
Abstract In this paper the author examines the sources available to create power and electricity. He looks at how technology is used to take advantage of the forces of nature available. The paper highlights how up until recently only the power created by falling water has been explored and used successfully in a number of applications. Sun, wind, waves, rivers, tides and the heat from radioactive decay in the earth's core are all looked at as being renew ables, in other words they give continuous sources. The paper concludes with a look at all of the environmental aspects of using these renewable sources, the arguments for and against each one including the aesthetic issues that arise. Introduction Solar Energy Wind Energy Rivers Geothermal Relating Renewable to Base-Load Electricity Demand Environmental Aspects
From the Paper "The main role of solar energy in the future will be that of direct heating. Much of our energy need is for heat below 60oC - e.g. in hot water systems. A lot more, particularly in industry, is for heat in the range 60 - 110oC. [2] Together these may account for a significant proportion of primary energy use in industrialized nations. The first need is readily supplied by solar power much of the time in some places and the second application commercially is probably not far off."
Abstract The paper shows the scientific progression of the creation of earth from tiny particles through to the earth we know today. The paper explains that, once enough atoms gathered together, stars were formed. The writer explains that our earth was the result of the explosion of a star which was too small to sustain the thermo nuclear reactions, so it eventually cooled and became a solid mass. The paper describes two theories of how DNA was created. The writer concludes that the seeds of life, containing DNA, from which all living creatures on earth grew, came from outer space.
From the Paper "How life originated is one of the most debated and most sought after question. Life as we know it requires water and, until one billion years ago, the earth was too hot to sustain liquid water, so we know that life on Earth must have formed within the last one billion years. There is evidence that shows that the oldest life we can detect occurred 500 million years ago. "We now understand that all life on Earth contains DNA, which is a long complex carbon-based strand consisting of billions of molecules. Every plant and animal on Earth has DNA. This DNA contains the instructions of how to grow and replicate itself, thereby creating more life. A single strand of DNA is unbelievably complicated, even in the smallest organisms. How is it possible that such a complicated thing was created in the short span of only one billion years? "According to the "Big Bang" theory, who maintain the belief that life on Earth was created in some primordial soup. Somehow a soup formed consisting of water, carbon and other elements and by chance eventually some of these elements came together in a form, which reproduced itself. The key feature of life it is that is able to create a duplicate of itself. The problem that scientists have faced with this theory is that they have never been able to replicate this primordial soup."
Abstract The paper explains the mechanisms whereby gold mining causes environmental damage. It gives examples of damage to the Amazon and in North America caused by gold mining. Finally, the writer urges us to conclude that that life is unquestionably more precious than gold.
From the Paper "Acidic deposition causes the emissions of sulfur dioxide and nitrous oxide into our air supply, causing many problems to the atmosphere. When these chemicals get into the air supply they combine with the Earth's sunlight, moisture, and oxidants to generate sulfuric and nitric acids, which are then carried along with atmospheric circulation. The interaction of all these components in the atmosphere then come back to earth via rainfall and snowfall, also known as acid rain. Dry deposits from acid rain come in the form of dry particles and atmospheric gases. Until acid deposition is diminished, loss of aquatic life in lakes and streams will continue and the growth of wildlife and forests may also be affected. If mines continue to excrete chemical waste into our atmosphere without thought to the serious effects to the Earth, we may very well see our wildlife and vegetation vanish before us."
Abstract This paper studies how plate tectonics and fault line movement are impacting the shape of the California coastline. The paper begins with a discussion of how plate tectonics have changed the earth's surface, including through earthquakes. Then the paper turns to one of the most famous major fault lines, the San Andreas fault. The paper examines its historical, current and future influence on California, such as the major earthquakes of the 1800s and 1900s. The paper concludes with a discussion of other fault lines, including active and inactive ones.
From the Paper "Plate tectonics is responsible for the building of mountain ranges, the separation of continents through creation of new crust when the seafloor spreads as new lithospheric material pushes out of rifts on the ocean floor, and for earthquakes and volcanic activity (including the creation of volcanic islands and mountain ranges). The regions where the action of plate tectonics is most discernible is where adjoining tectonic plates are most active: pressing into each other, sliding over or under each other, sliding past each other. This activity usually takes place at a geologic pace--that is, so slowly that it escapes the notice of short-lived creatures such as human beings. Humans are unlikely to see mountain ranges forming or continents drifting apart. When two great tectonic plates, such as the Pacific Plate and the North American Plate, move relative to each other along the Pacific coast at an average rate of 2 inches a year, who would notice? But the these gigantic plates do not move only by drifting or creeping at such an imperceptible pace. As they mash into each other, portions of their adjoining edges get hung up or frozen in place for years at a time, even for centuries or thousands of years. The pressure on these junctures finally gives way as much larger movements which humans perceive (can hardly ignore!) as earthquakes."
Tags: san, andreas, bay, area, los, angeles, earthquake, pacific, ocean
Abstract This paper explains that tsunami, powerful force of nature, is the term for a seismic sea wave generated by an undersea earthquake and an undersea landslide or volcanic eruption. Hurricanes and cyclones also can cause tsunamis, which are called storm surges. The author points out that in Japan, which has one of the most populated coastal regions in the world and a long history of earthquake activity, tsunamis have destroyed entire coastal communities. The paper discusses at length the most lethal tsunami ever recorded preceded, which the eruption of Krakato in 1883, on the island of Krakatoa in the Sunda Stratis between Sumatra and Java.
From the Paper "Today, the Pacific Tsunami Warning Center, located in Honolulu and administered by the U.S. National Weather Service, tries to save lives and safeguard property from tsunami by monitoring seismometers and tide gauges throughout the Pacific. A major quake anywhere in this region rings warning bells and geophysicists scurry to decipher the quakes location and size. If they decide that the quakes generate tsunami, they then will issue a "tsunami watch" to all member nations it the Pacific, including (last but not least) Japan. When observers or instruments actually detect tsunami waves that "watch" becomes an official warning., and is updated as waves proceed."
Abstract This paper begins with a description of the destruction caused by the 1995 earthquake in Kobe, Japan and then takes a look at why the region suffered such extensive damage. The paper describes how the traditional Japanese home is constructed as well as how commercial buildings and transportation-related structures are typically constructed and explains why these structures could not withstand the force of the earthquake. The paper also points out the need to adopt newer methods of construction in order to make the homes and buildings safer and more capable of withstanding earthquakes.
From the Paper "In 1990, the Japanese Meteorological Agency made a list of 18 regions that experienced seismic activity of less than 3 on the Richter scale. The regions on this list were considered "earthquake-proof". On January 17, 1995, to the surprise of the researchers involved, Kobe, Japan, one of the locations on the safe list, was struck by one of the most severe earthquakes known to mankind at 5:46 a.m. (Japanese Standard Time) (See Figures 1 &2). The magnitude of this earthquake measured 6.9 on the Richter scale and 7.2 on the Japanese Meteorological Agency scale. As a result of this earthquake, 5470 people were killed, 33,000 more were injured and a total of 310,000 local residents were left homeless. Water mains and gas lines were badly damaged. Survivors of the earthquake were left without many of the essentials for everyday life. Eventually, citizens were informed that they could be without water and gas systems for two months or more. Several larger structures including transportation systems, office buildings, and bridges were also damaged during the earthquake (Figure 3). As of April 22, 1995, $110 billion had been spent trying to restore Kobe to livable conditions. "
Abstract This paper explores the issues surrounding the shortages of timber that have been caused and are continuing to happen from NIPF (Non- Industrial Private Forest) lands. The author looks at studies that indicate the demand for timber will overtake supply sometime before 2020, highlighting the areas of the study in different counties in Alabama. The paper centers on the NIPF land owners mismanagement of forests causing shortages of timber. In conclusion, the author states that NIPF landowners could contribute significantly to help alleviate the predicted timber shortages but based on the studies mentioned in the paper, it is unlikely that they will be motivated to use their land for timber production despite incentive programs that have been successful in establishing a replanting program. In the author's opinion, the NIPF landowners prefer to decide themselves how to use their lands and financial gain is not always the leading factor.
From the Paper "Royer conducted many studies on the decision process used by owners of NIPF land. He stated that "Conventional wisdom in forestry holds that landowner behavior, if left unfettered or unencouraged, can and will lead to shortages of timber or increases in the relative prices of stumpage," (Royer, 1979a, in Cubbage and Snider, p. 2). The US forestry service projects that from 1991 to 2010, pulp production will increase by 16%. However, the production of stock panels will increase 33%, nearly twice that rate (Cubbage, 1997). In addition, hardwood removals are expected to increase by 59% in the same time period. Estimates using the Southern Regional Timber Supply model (SERTS) predicts increases of timber removals to increase 39% for hardwoods and 24% for softwoods (Cubbage, 1997). Using this same model, without adjusting for inflation, prices for softwoods are projected to experience 200% increases and Hardwood prices are expected top increase 343% between 1990 and 2020."
This paper examines the resulting effects due to the recent population explosion which include: Hunger, depletion of fossil fuels, pollution and global warming, as well as the various strategies available to halt these same effects.
Abstract The writer of this paper explores the negative effects and consequences due to the recent population explosion which include: Overcrowding, hunger, pollution, deforestation, global warming, crime and the loss of nature's bio diversity. One of the biggest obstacles, due to the increase in the population, is the depletion of the world's fossil fuel resources. The writer stresses the need for stricter environmental guidelines as well as birth rate control regulations. This paper defines the earth's depleting fossil fuel as a broad term for three sources of energy: Petroleum, natural gas and coal. All three were formed millions of years ago during the age of dinosaurs, hence the name fossil fuels. The energy comes from decomposed plant and animal matter. Once these fuels are depleted they cannot be renewed. This paper examines the benefits to the environment in utilizing renewable energy as an alternative to the earth's dwindling fossil fuel reserves. The paper also details various environmentally sound strategies that would aid in preserving the earth's remaining resources.
From the Paper "Fossil fuel is a broad term for three sources of energy: petroleum, natural gas, and coal. All three were formed millions of years ago during the age of dinosaurs-hence the name fossil fuels. The energy comes from decomposed plant and animal matter. Energy Quest, a major educational service on the World Wide Web describes the origin of fossil fuels: When plants and dinosaurs and other ancient creatures died, they decomposed and became buried, layer upon layer under the ground. It took millions of years to form these layers into a hard, black colored rock-like substance called coal; a thick liquid called oil or petroleum, and natural gas. Petroleum and natural gas are extracted from deep deposits below the Earth's surface."
Abstract This paper examines some of the most spectacular destinations on Earth. It begins with Mount Hekla, one of Iceland's most famous volcanoes and then moves on to Yellowstone National Park located in Wyoming, home to many geysers. In particular, it looks at Grand geyser one of the largest on Earth. It concludes with the Great Barrier Reef, home to a vast array of marine life and examines how it is a complete ecosystem unto itself.
Outline
Mount Hekla
Last Eruption
Predictions for Future Eruptions
Interesting Facts and Stories
Grand Geyser
The Formation of a Geyser
The Future of Grand Geyser
The Great Barrier Reef
Formation
Predictions of Future Activity
Marine Life and Tourism
From the Paper "Grand geyser is one of the many geysers that can be found at Yellowstone National Park in Wyoming. The most famous geyser located at Yellowstone is Old Faithful, but Grand geyser should not be overlooked. Grand geyser is one of the largest geysers on Earth and has an interval of eight to twelve hours with a height of 150-180 feet and a duration of 10-12 minutes. Grand geyser, like most geysers, is formed from a hot spring with an underground chamber. The future of Grand geyser is really unknown, but it is expected to remain active for many years to come. Yellowstone National Park is a major tourist attraction in Wyoming, thus it draws a large crowd to view the magnificent beauty of Grand geyser. Like most things, there is a danger to the geyser in the form of water contamination."
Abstract This paper details the impact of the British government's involvement in southern Africa during the phase of new imperialism between
1880-1900, in which various European governments began to scramble for land in the region. This paper explores Britain's interests in southern Africa, which were heightened with the discovery of prolific deposits of gold and diamonds. The writer discusses the lack of investment into the local economy which combined with a policy of black segregation and the enforced migration of labor, created a situation of devastating poverty among the black Africans. This paper paper also focuses on the segregation policies of the diamond mines which set a direct precedence for the establishment of the apartheid policy in the South African government.
From the Paper "An interesting feature of the diamond industry was the unmarketability of the gems. They were luxury items that held varying degrees of popularity in Europe at the time, and the responsibility for the successful sale of diamonds rested on the shoulders of London merchants. What resulted was an increased financial involvement between British businessmen at home and overseas, thus strengthening British private investments in the region. Politically, the British were unwilling to provide their annexed territories with ample governmental administration. Instead, they preferred to rely on the cooperation of the local white population."
Abstract This paper discusses the geological evidence supporting the theory that the Cherokee Indians originally immigrated to North America via the Bering Strait, the body of water that separates Siberia from Alaska. The paper also looks at the scientific and anthropological theories of Indian immigration but concludes that the geological theory is not at all implausible.
From the Paper "The Cherokee Indians were heirchial with each man's place being determined by his persoanl achievements in war and in hunting. The Cherokee knew that the resources of the earth were finite and wisely used the gifts of the earth. In the 1978 book entitiled "Americas' Facinating Indian Heritage" stated is that, "The American Indians still live today in "substandard, overcrowded dwellings with minimal sanitation, tuberculosis, influenza and penmonia....the suicide rate among Indian adolescents is 100 times that of whites....alcoholism is common place. " While some of the tribes did receive government settlements eventually many of these did not. (America's Facinating Indian Heritage, 1978 p.396-398) The Cherokee people lived a balanced life that did not take from the earth and environment but left it as they found it in the Cherokee tradition."
This paper reviews and analyzes Simon Winchester's biography, "The Map that Changed the World," which describes how William Smith indelibly changed the face of geological science.
Abstract The writer of this paper examines the life and accomplishments of William Smith, the English geologist credited for creating the first geological map. This paper examines how Smith's maps shifted public perception regarding the creation of the universe. This paper reviews Simon Winchester's biography, "The Map that Changed the World," which summarizes Smith's life, his achievements and the impacts made on the scientific community due to his research. Smith's early work with canal digging companies and within the mining industry enabled him to become more aware of what lie beneath the surface of the land. This paper focuses on Smith's fascination with the earth, rocks and fossils, which led to the creation of his first geological map of Bath. Influenced by other cartography and on extant atlases, Smith devised special colorization systems for his geological maps, which are discussed in this paper. This paper also examines Smith's longing for more recognition than he was afforded during his lifetime. While Smith's maps were published during his lifetime, what should have been the high point of his life marked the beginning of a downward spiral, when many of his personal and professional relationships fell apart. This paper examines why centuries after his death, geologists still pay homage to William Smith, the father of modern geology.
From the Paper "His early work with canal digging companies and within the mining industry enabled William Smith to become more aware of what lie beneath the surface of the land. There could be no better situation for a man who loved geology in the eighteenth century than being paid to dig deep under the ground. Thus, his professional work offered him a private pleasure and a convenient means by which to formulate, develop, and prove his theories. On his own, while he traveled as a surveyor for the Somerset Coal Canal Company, Smith observed how sedimentary layers of rock were arranged in patterns across the land. Somerset Coal Canal Company was not so much interested in the scientific implications for Smith's findings as in their financial implications. For instance, when he was first hired, Smith noticed how English villages rest on top of "a score of complex, broken, twisted, and contorted seams of coal." For Smith, his work meant unlocking some of the earth's deepest secrets."
