Abstract This paper uses "An Introduction to the World's Oceans" by Keith Sverdrup to back up some of the serious issues raised through recent research conducted by the U.S. Commission on Ocean Policy, in particular, the ongoing and future pollution threats to ocean waters, citizens, and marine life. Journal articles also supplement the paper and the topics being reviewed.
Table of Contents
Introduction
The Economic Value of Oceans to Americans
Waste Dumping in Our Oceans
Oil Contamination from Various Sources
Toxins and Trash Entering the Oceans
The Depleted Fisheries
The Vanishing Wetlands
Conclusion
References
Endnotes
From the Paper "The U. S. Commission on Ocean Policy reports that more than 28 million gallons of oil from human activities enter North American waters annually, but, according to an article in Issues in Science and Technology, "the bulk of human-related inputs is not due to large-scale spills and accidents that occur during the transport of crude oil or petroleum products" (Rabalais, 2003). In fact, researchers looking for sources of oil that runs into America's oceans can look into the "chronic low-level releases" of oil that add up to "roughly 16 million gallons of oil" annually, running down rivers and streams, according to the Rabalais article.
These oil pollutants "are most obvious in the watersheds that drain heavily populated areas," and the data from the U.S. Commission on Ocean Policy, plus the Sverdrup textbook, indicate that coast areas are becoming more and more heavily populated. Some of the 16 million gallons draining originates with "jettisoned aircraft fuel, marine recreational vehicles, and operational discharges, such as cargo washings and releases from petroleum extraction." "
Abstract This paper explains that the Snowball Hypothesis for Earth, which is a theory speculating that the earth has experienced consistent cyclical hot and cold periods, can be considered a possible cause of the current trends toward warmer climates and rising seas. The author points out that the theory encompasses tropical sea-level glaciers, distributions of continents, carbon dioxide levels, solar input, banded iron formations and early bacterial life. The paper states that scientist speculate that approximately twenty thousand years ago, our deep ocean waters moved towards the freezing point, but those water temperatures were not near the equator as was the case during the Neoproterozoic period.
From the Paper "As we currently fear global warming, evidence may be pointing to eventual temperature shifts that follow the Yin and Yang of life. First, there are opposites hot and cold. The planet is merely going through its normal cyclical changes so we should not fear global warming any more than we should expect it as we should also expect another future snowball. "For the last million years, the Earth has been in its coldest state since the Neoproterozoic. We are now living in a relatively warm episode, some 80,000 years from the next glacial maximum, but some evidence suggests that each successive glaciation over the last several cycles has been getting stronger and stronger.""
Abstract Louisiana encompasses an area of 51,844 square miles and is the 31st largest state in the United States. This paper examines the topography of the state, examining areas such as geographic regions, lakes and rivers, forestland, plant and animal life and climate.
From the Paper "Various types of natural lakes exist. Cut-off or oxbow lakes (for example, False River, Bruin, Larto) form when a stream "cuts off" the neck of a meander (bend) to create a new course. Particularly along the valley of the Red, raft lakes (Caddo, Cross, Bistineau, Black, and others) were formed from waters dammed by the Great Raft, a logjam that clogged the river until it was finally removed. Lakes form along the coast when cheniers (beach ridges) act to slow the flow of rivers while also protecting the resulting lake from encroachment by the Gulf. Lakes Pontchartrain, Maurepas, and Catahoula exist in grabens, depressions in the earth bounded by faults. Other natural lakes are associated with the drainage in the vicinity of rivers, deltas, and salt domes."
Abstract This paper explains that plate tectonics is one of the most important discoveries in science and geology because it explains why the continents share many similarities, which could not be explained if they had always existed apart and it explains why, even today, the surface of the earth is constantly shifting, rearranging and moving. The author points out that an important discovery, which ultimately led scientists to believe the theory of plate tectonics was correct, was the discovery of seafloor spreading. The paper relates that plate tectonics and the continual shifting it produces can create many changes in the surface of the earth from weather to earthquakes and volcanic eruptions.
From the Paper "Several theories of geologic process and scientific discovery helped lead to the discovery of plate tectonics in the 1920s, and the theory was generally accepted by the 1950s. The plate tectonic theory evolved from earlier theories, beginning with continental drift. The first time continental drift was mentioned was in 1908, by an American named Frank Bursey Taylor. However, the theory really did not gain acceptance until 1912 when German meteorologist and geophysicist Alfred Wegener detailed the theory and gave it more basis in fact. The continental drift theory believes that between 275 and 175 million years ago, all the continents were joined together in one land mass. Later, this massive continent broke apart into two gigantic landmasses in the north and south, those continents further divided about 100 million years ago into more currently recognizable shapes, and they began to drift apart during this time, too."
Abstract Since the colonial era Victoria has been the capital of British Columbia. It is located on the southeastern tip of Vancouver Island. This paper outlines the physical geography of this region including its physical geography, geomorphology, soils, climate and vegetation. Additionally, the role of tectonic activity in the area is also explored.
Outline
Introduction
Physical Geography and Geomorphology
Plate Tectonics
Climate and Vegetation
Conclusions
From the Paper "Plate tectonics are the single most important geological force operating on the Victoria Region. This assertion is true for four distinct reasons. In the popularly understood conception of plate tectonics Victoria is on the edge of a plate being relatively violently subducted. Second, as a consequence of this it exhibits the most frequent earthquake activity in Canada. Third, and also a consequence of plate tectonics, it is subjected to cycles of extremely violent earthquake activity every few centuries (a blink of the eye in geological terms). Fourth and less commonly, micro-plate activity and the creation of terranes has significantly impacted on the physical geography of the Victoria region."
Abstract This paper discusses the history of Heinrich events, and current theories of their origin. Additionally, this paper outlines the scientific method for discovering more information of Heinrich events, and their relationship to the Bond Cycle, Milankovitch Cycles, and Dansgaard-Oeschger (D-O) oscillations. Finally, it looks at the possible effects on global climate as the result of Heinrich events, using the Younger Dryas as the basis for discussion.
From the Paper "Heinrich events were first discovered by Hartmut Heinrich of the German Hydrographic Institute of Hamburg, Germany in 1988. Heinrich extracted samples from northeastern Atlantic sediment cores, and analyzed the samples. He discovered that the number of lithic, or rock sediment, and planktonic foraminifera (zooplankton) shell formations fluctuated greatly in many of the core samples. Additionally, Heinrich noted that the components of the sediments seemed not to fluctuate gradually, but seemingly abruptly (Hackett, 1994)."
Abstract This paper examines how although hurricanes Floyd and Grace both brought devastating damage, Floyd's impact came largely from the Floyd itself, while Grace's impact came from the combination with two other weather systems. It looks at how by itself, Floyd was a force to be reckoned with: A category 3 hurricane that stretched from Canada to the U.S. that came on the heels of Hurricane Dennis. In contrast, it discusses how Grace was a less powerful storm that would have dissipated naturally before causing serious damage.
From the Paper "While it stretched from Canada to Florida, Floyd brought the largest amounts of damage to North Carolina, Virginia, and Mid-Atlantic States. In North Carolina alone, Floyd caused 51 deaths, completely destroyed 7,000 homes, and left 17,000 homes uninhabitable. 10,000 people were driven into temporary shelters, and a new 24-hour rainfall record was recorded in Wilmington. Deaths also occurred in South Carolina, Virginia, Maryland, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, New York, Delaware, Rhode Island, Connecticut, Massachusetts and Vermont (National Weather Service). Hydrologists marked Floyd as a 500-year flood event, meaning that a similar flood would only occur once every 500 years (Herring)."
Abstract This paper discusses the prominent features of physical geography both within the park and the surrounding region. The focus of the paper is on the physical geography, including topography, minerals, glaciers, soils, animals, plants, environment and climate. Glaciers and the effects of glaciation on the Kenai Fjords National Park and surrounding region are
also discussed in some depth.
Outline
Topography
Rocks and Mineral
Soils
Glaciers
Animals and Wildlife
Plants
Surrounding Bodies of Water
Rivers and Lakes
Environment
Climate and Weather
Geopolitical
Conclusion
From the Paper "The Kenai Fjords National Park is located on the Kenai Peninsula off the southern part of Alaska. The Park and the surrounding region are known for a wide variety of climates, terrain, and flora and fauna. The region also contains reserves of oil, natural gas, and coal. The Peninsula provides a microcosmic view of the overall Alaskan ecology- all the various types of terrain native to Alaska can be found within the Kenai Peninsula. The region is also home to some of the largest glaciers outside of the Arctic Circle."
Abstract The legendary annihilation in 1883 of the volcano-island of Krakatoa in 1883, was followed by an immense tsunami that killed nearly forty thousand people. Beyond the purely physical horrors of an event that has only very recently been properly understood, the eruption changed the world in more ways than could possibly be imagined. This paper discusses the events of that fateful August day and the experiences of some of the people who witnessed this natural disaster. The paper includes a map.
From the Paper "The effects of the immense waves were felt as far away as France. Barometers in Bogota and Washington, D.C., went haywire. Bodies were washed up in Zanzibar. The sound of the island's destruction was heard in Australia and India and on islands thousands of miles away. Most significant of all---in view of today's new political climate---the eruption helped to trigger in Java a wave of murderous anti-Western militancy among fundamentalist Muslims: one of the first outbreaks of Islamic-inspired killings anywhere."
Abstract This paper briefly looks at how residents of the area have coped with having a partially active-volcano in their geographic domain. The paper addresses lifestyle issues, agricultural and ecological issues as well as a short history of the volcano's activity.
From the Paper "While modern men created the hydrogen bomb, they have it in their power to decide when and where it can explode. But no one man, no corps of scientists or engineers, no politicians, no army of environmentalists, no governments can control the actions of aroused volcanoes. In one destructive flash they can wreak more pollution and devastation than anything man designs. Obviously we must learn to cope with these handsome deadly creations of nature if present and future generations are to live safely and happily alongside the volcanoes in the western United States. Hopefully, Mount St. Helens will teach us how to accomplish this. 8"
Abstract This paper researches and examines the relevant information available in relation to the Cambrian System of the Grand Canyon. The paper explains that the lower middle and upper series in the stratigraphic scale of the Cambrian is a duration of over 50 million years but the three facies of the Tonto group deposited simultaneously appear super and juxtaposed which could be explained due to a varying velocity of the water flow in the different zones while sedimentation was still in its formation process.
Outline
Objective
Introduction
The Cambrian System
Stratigraphy of the Grand Canyon
The Tonto Group Formations and Layers
Zones in the Tonto Group Strata
Summary
From the Paper " The stratigraphy of the Grand Canyon is illustrated in the chart below: Precambrian sedimentological layer is a "complex group of highly metamorphic and intensively folded rock of the "Vishnu Group", inclusive of chlorite-mica schist, with minor amount of amphibolites, gneiss and calc-silicate rocks. Occurrences of Zoroaster pink feldspars granite is noted with intrusion of Vishnu rocks vertically and pegmatic veins that are as thick as multiples of ten meters. The Zoroaster and Vishnu rocks the compositional materials of the Lower Proterozoic. These rocks are laid over by tilted Upper Proterozoic volcanic0sedimentary Grand Canyon Supergroup in some tectonic depressions with the Tonto Group of the Cambrian System overlaying the Vishnu and the Zoroaster rocks. (Grand Canyon, 1989) "
Abstract This paper attempts to prove why the impact theory is the most plausible reasoning behind the mass extinction that wiped out the dinosaurs and so many other species at the K-T boundary. By looking at the substantial amount of evidence for this theory, it examines how the impact theory as opposed to the volcanic theory is currently the most valid explanation for understanding why so many of the world's plants and animals died out at the end of the Cretaceous period.
Outline
What's in a Theory: The History of Mass Extinction Hypotheses
The K-T Boundary: The Cold, Hard Facts
The Impact Theory
The Volcanism Theory
Which is More Plausible?
Conclusion
From the Paper "As the years progressed and theories for mass extinction began to multiply, the concepts of catastrophism and uniformitarianism were born. Catastrophism is, "the doctrine that major changes in the Earth's crust result from catastrophes rather than evolutionary processes" (Catastrophism). In this definition, "catastrophes" include anything that cannot be explained by solid, proven, unwavering geological processes visible on the Earth. A flood of the magnitude recounted in the Bible would mean that the geological process of the water cycle would have to be sped up tremendously. This is a perfect example of catastrophism because at the time in which it was most widely-accepted, it was perfectly acceptable to society that the Flood was a largely disastrous event brought upon the Earth by God, and not a constant geological process such as weathering or volcanic activity."
Abstract The paper addresses the importance and value of coral ecosystems and details human-induced threats that are currently affecting corals such as overfishing, direct disturbance, coral bleaching, eutrophication and global climate change. The paper also briefly outlines recommended strategies for managing coral ecosystems in the future. Includes pictures.
From the Paper "In the world's oceans, coral reef ecosystems contribute to a large portion of the biodiversity of marine life. Besides the living corals themselves, many plants and animals such as fish, algae, bacteria and invertebrates depend on the coral as habitat. Yet in recent years, coral reef ecosystems have declined and changed at alarming rates, leaving scientists trying to decipher the exact workings of these ecosystems and the causes of decline. Some recent suggestions on the factors contributing to reef change are overfishing, disease, large-scale disturbance events, global climate change (namely ozone depletion and global warming), pollution, overharvesting and overpopulation. Global warming in particular has been singled out as the greatest current threat to corals and is considered to play a key role in coral bleaching, an effect which can ultimately lead to mortality of corals. With the marine environment continually changing, coral reefs throughout the world, as well as the diverse array of life they support, are seriously threatened."
Abstract Created millions of years of ago through geologic action, the Ogallala aquifer is a vast underground reservoir that runs west of the Mississippi River and east of the Rocky Mountains. This paper examines the evolution and deposition of the aquifer and discusses problems facing it today.
From the Paper "The main concern for the Ogallala is the fact that the aquifer has been cut off from most of its natural recharging sources (Ogallala pp). The Rocky Mountains have not supplied the aquifer for more than a thousand years, and the High Plains climate today is classified as semi-arid, receiving only fifteen to twenty inches of rainfall annually, most of which is subject to a high rate of evaporation due to the dry air and high winds (Ogallala pp). Moreover, many of the rivers, such as the Platte, Canadian, and Arkansas, actually drain the aquifer since they have water tables below that of the aquifer (Ogallala pp)."
Abstract This paper describes the causes of the global warming phenomenon that have been a part of earth's geological history since the dawn of geological time. The paper also looks at the effects that global warming has on the earth and in particular its effects in the Arctic Circle.
From the Paper "Climate change in general, and global warming in specific, are by no means new phenomena. Since the dawn of geological time, surface and atmospheric temperatures on Earth have fluctuated enormously. In some cases, worldwide climate change has led to actual shifts in land masses, leading to changes in the ways human beings and societies evolved. For example, global climate change caused the so-called Ice Age: "During the Quaternary period (the past million years) the ice cap has repeatedly spread to middle latitudes over the sea, with corresponding glaciation on the continents," (Gribbin Forecasts 73). The disappearance of the dinosaurs and other prehistoric creatures may in fact be due to climatic changes. Global warming has also been intense in our geological history: between ice ages, it is possible that no portion of the earth was covered with glaciation whatsoever (Gribbin Forecasts 73). Moreover, such massive temperature and climate transformations probably did not occur as a result of human intervention, but rather were a result of complex environmental, meteorological, and astronomical influences. Climatic fluctuations are indeed natural and inevitable."
