Abstract This paper examines how both carbon-14 and uranium-238 are used to date fossils and how both methods are based on measuring the decay that has occurred in these elements. It looks at how carbon-14 dating is used for organic material, plants and animals, while uranium-238 is used primarily for geographic formations. It also discusses how both methods of dating are subject to potential sample contamination and, therefore, inaccurate readings; the addition of foreign material in both types of samples can provide either younger or older results, dependent on the material.
From the Paper "Radioactive elements decay at unique rates, dependant on the isotope. This rate of decay is known as half-lives, it is the time necessary for ? of the atoms to decay in a particular element. The decay follows a geometric scale, in that in the first half-life of an element, ? of the atoms decay, yet in the second half-life, ? of those remaining decay, meaning a ? of the original atoms decay, and so forth. By measuring this decay, and knowing the half life of an element, scientists can date a sample."
Abstract This paper examines how factorial ecology continues to be of interest to those conducting marketing research, although radiocentric approaches tend to be more "en vogue" at the moment, especially when considering the development of new, as opposed to existing, city populations, such as in the American South, or in cities undergoing profound ethnic changes unprecedented in their history, such as Toronto. It looks at how cities undergoing physical transformations, such as New York after September 11th, also offer uncharted waters for radiocentric explanations as well. It concludes that factorial ecology's more coherent, if not always more accurate, sociological analysis is not only seductive, but also often instructive for students attempting to make a more coherent theoretical narrative about the ideological reasons for a city's shifting and changing image.
Outline
Introduction
What Are the Factors that Predict Which Model is Explanatory?
What Are the Weaknesses of Each Model?
Conclusion
From the Paper "Toronto is a mosaic-like city of ethnic and regional composition, one reason that radiocentric explanations are fairly popular in understanding its development. As with New York, the map-like spreading out of different communities are often instructive to how certain ethnicities have become part of the nation's fabric and to what extent they participate in a city's centrality or sectors of prosperity or poverty. However, once a city grows in age and second and third generation members become more integrated and dispersed within a city's fold, radiocentric explanations become more difficult to offer, unless specific communities continue built around specific urban industries, such as the city's garment district, or, to use another example, the case of Silicon Valley and its outer-lying suburbs, where an hitherto empty area of growth becomes filled because of its location around a certain nexus of the computer industry."
A look at the theory proposed by British atmospheric chemist, James Lovelock, which characterizes earth as a complex living organism rather than merely an inanimate host for the many terrestrial life forms dependent on it for sustenance.
Abstract This paper explains and examines the Gaia Theory, which proposes that the earth is itself a tremendously large and complex super-organism, comprising all of the other life forms dependant upon it in very much the same fashion that the human body comprises the many trillions of individual living cellular organisms that, collectively, constitute a human being. The paper first details some of the criticisms as well as the support for Lovelock's theory, outlines the essential elements of the theory, and then provides a critical analysis of the theory.
From the Paper "In the 1960?s, James Lovelock, a British atmospheric chemist, was engaged in research commissioned by the National Aeronautic and Space Administration (NASA) in the United States. Specifically, the studies were intended to develop a method for determining reliably whether or not biological life existed on Mars. Part of Lovelock's work involved analyzing certain elements of Earth's atmospheric properties and mechanisms, in order to understand how a planet teeming with biological life might be differentiated accurately from interplanetary distances from a planet completely devoid of biological life (Enteractive, 1995)."
Abstract This paper presents a brief overview of different theories of the origins of life on earth. The paper explains the naturalistic approach, the chemical evolution theory, and the comet theory. The paper also examines some of the weaknesses in these theories and concludes with the author's opinion that the comet theory is the most plausible theory for explaining the origins of life on earth.
From the Paper "Questions related to the origins of life on Earth have always been a cause for scientific investigation and suppositions. If we refer to the naturalistic approach, than the evolutionary process is a justified explanation of changes and transformations that have occurred. This is a theory that we can successfully apply to the appearance of life on Earth and to the chemical processes that have made it possible."
Abstract This paper discusses the earth's geothermal energy. The paper contends that geothermal energy cannot be trusted to supply all of the world's energy needs as there are simply not enough geothermal reservoirs near the surface of the earth. The paper explores the optimism expressed by some geologists who believe that, as drilling technology improves, humans will be able to reach enough geothermal reservoirs to accommodate a large percentage of the world's energy demands.
From the Paper "The earth formed approximately 4.5 billion years ago. Our planet's geothermal heat originates from the energetic remnants of that coalescence. Over time, the interior of the earth ?became differentiated into several distinct compositional zones: a large, iron rich core; a thick surrounding mantle; and at the surface, a thin, low density crust.? (Montgomery 10). This fact contributed to a number of important attributes of the earth, including the formation of the atmosphere?which came into existence thanks to gases escaping from the hot interior."
Abstract This paper introduces, discusses, and analyzes the phylum of arthropoda. Specifically, the paper introduces this phylum to the reader, including general characteristics of the phylum, an overview of the taxonomy within the phylum, the number of organisms within the phylum, where these organisms live, their ecological or economic importance, and any interesting facts about organisms within the phylum.
From the Paper "The arrangement of animals in this phylum is quite varied. These creatures are usually divided into four classes: Trilobita (trilobites, which are now extinct, but the fossils look like flat beetles or sea creatures), Chelicerata, (which include spiders and scorpions, mites and ticks, horseshoe crabs, daddy-longlegs, and other animals with eight legs), Crustacea, (which include crabs, lobsters, shrimp, and other sea creatures), and Uniramia, (which include insects, millipedes, centipedes, and insects like these). These four main classes hold literally millions of insects and members. Since there are so many diverse insects and spiders on the planet, and scientist know they have not all been discovered, many people believe there are thousands that are not yet classified, and the entire class holds many millions of animals. Estimates place arthropods at about 80 percent of all known animals on Earth (Tatner). Within these four classes, the animals are broken down even further into numerous sub-classes."
Abstract This report presents a summary of hurricanes in general. The paper discusses the path of Hurricane Andrew. The paper explains that Hurricane Andrew was a small, but extremely ferocious hurricane that inflicted an unprecedented economic devastation all along its path through the northwestern Bahamas, the southern Florida peninsula, and south-central Louisiana. The paper contends that record amount of damage has been updated to well over forty billion dollars, making Hurricane Andrew one of the most expensive natural disasters in the history of the United States.
From the Paper "A hurricane is basically a very big tropical cyclone like weather system that develops in the tropics. There are certain storm classifications that distinguish types of storms: Tropical Depression, Tropical Storm and a Hurricane. One major distinction between these different types of storms is the speed of the associated winds. A Tropical Depression usually has all of the makings of a storm such as persistent clouds and thunderstorms but the maximum sustained winds are at most thirty eight miles per hour. A Tropical Storm also has strong thunderstorms and winds blowing between thirty nine to seventy three miles per hour. In the case of a Hurricane, the tropical weather system's winds range from seventy four miles per hour and up."
Abstract This paper describes the important role played by the National Weather Service (NWS) and the crucial information it provides, not only to residents of the United States, but also to the airline industry, cruise industry, and major national concerns, such as NASA. The paper examines the different methods employed to forecast extreme weather conditions.
From the Paper "The National Weather Service (NWS) is a government agency that affects every resident of the United States in important ways. Because of its skill in predicting extreme weather such as hurricanes and tornadoes, potentially thousands of lives have been saved. However, most people don"t realize that the NWS has a somewhat checkered history. Government leaders have been interested in predicting and recording the weather since shortly after the first colonists arrived in what would become the United States. A Swedish military chaplain living in what is present-day Delaware started keeping a weather diary in 1644. Such diaries were the main source of information about weather through the early 19th century (Waite, 2004). Many of the early Founding Fathers, including Franklin, Washington and Jefferson, recorded weather conditions (Waite, 2004). It wasn"t until 1814, however, that the United States Government began to systematically gather weather data, a job assigned to the U. S. Army Surgeon General and his medical corps assigned to barracks and forts across the country (Waite, 2004)."
Abstract This paper discusses and analyzes the condiments salt and sugar. Specifically, it compares and contrasts cultural views on sugar and salt. The paper examines the historical roots for those views and discusses how they have changed over time. The paper explains that sugar and salt are two of the basic foods in most of the world's diets; in modern times, these two very different foods cause fear, and many people limit them for health reasons. The paper contends that, while sugar and salt are building blocks of diet and nutrition, too much of them can go a long way in ruining a healthy diet.
From the Paper "Salt is one of the most basic minerals in the world, and yet it is one of the most mysterious. Today, it is trendy to keep "designer" salts in the kitchen - sea salts, French Fleur de Sel, Kosher salt - gray, pink, black, and white salts, all for different cooking purposes. However, salt has a much longer history. Today salt is trendy, but in the past, salt was life, and because of that, it played a monumental part in the history of the world. Writer Kurlansky notes, "Without both water and salt, cells could not get nourishment and would die of dehydration" (Kurlansky 5). Another historian states, "The essential function of salt is to maintain the equilibrium of the liquids or serum in the body; it must remain constant" (Toussaint-Samat 457). Salt is necessary for survival, but it has been used for centuries as a flavoring, and even as currency."
Abstract This paper takes a look at the uses of geothermal energy, how it is harnessed, which countries presently use this form of energy, the different types of geothermal reservoirs, and the different processes used for generating power through geothermal energy.
From the Paper "According to Godfrey Boyle, geothermal energy "is the natural, internal heat of the earth that is trapped in rock formations deep within the crust, but only a fraction of this vast storehouse of energy can be extracted" (1996, 128), meaning that the sources for this type of renewable energy are not found widely on the earth. Historically, geothermal energy has been used by various cultures and countries for hundreds or perhaps thousands of years, especially in areas where hot springs, geysers and other volcanic activity is widespread. One such country that uses geothermal energy on a daily basis is Iceland, located on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge and just south of the Arctic Circle. In Reykjavik, the capital city of Iceland, many modern buildings, such as schools, factories and private homes, are heated by geothermal energy which rises to the surface through hot springs which can be found scattered all over the island."
Abstract This paper provides an overview of the problems currently being experienced in delivering sufficient quantities of water to those who need it, followed by an analysis of potential alternatives and their expected consequences. A summary of the research is provided in the conclusion.
From the Paper "In Greek mythology, Poseidon used his mighty trident to rule over the entire world's supply of water. Today, though, just ten enormous global conglomerates are exploiting the murky regulations that govern international trade to do just the same. According to the research presented in Blue Gold: The Fight to Stop the Corporate Theft of the World's Water, an emerging water cartel is exploiting cross-border pacts such as the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade to buy up--and potentially dry up--the earth's over-extended freshwater supplies (Siegel, 2003). The trend continues in California and other western states, where the business of water-rights trading, particularly concerning the Colorado River, is gaining momentum. Furthermore, the niche market for bottled water (as exemplified by Nestle, Coca-Cola, and PepsiCo) has proven to be lucrative, yet largely unregulated."
Abstract This paper presents an overview of industrial hygiene concerns and makes recommendations for the reduction of the risks associated with selenium in the workplace.
Outline
Statement of the Problem
Summary of Toxic Properties of Selenium
Summary of Industrial Hygiene Concerns
Recommendations to Management to Reduce the Risk to Workers
From the Paper "Selenium is a chemical element in the oxygen family (Group VIa) of the periodic table; the element is closely allied in chemical and physical properties with the elements sulfur and tellurium (Selenium, 2004). Selenium was first recognized as an element in 1818 by Jacob Berzelius, a Swedish chemist. The element is a metalloid (this is an element that exhibits properties that are intermediate between the metals and the nonmetals); it is widely distributed throughout the world; however, such distribution only occurs in small quantities (Selenium, 2004). Prolonged exposure to certain metals such as cadmium, copper, lead, nickel, selenium compounds and zinc can cause deleterious health effects in humans (Reilly 1991). At low levels, selenium is considered a nutrient; however, it is being increasingly shown that at higher levels, the element and many of its compounds are toxic in humans (Dunning, 1993). Furthermore, Harris (1991) believes that numerous undiagnosed situations exist where people are suffering from selenium poisoning and physicians simply do not recognize it."
Abstract This paper examines the causes of the original Dust Bowl, tackling issues such as soil composition, climatological factors, and farmer negligence. It also addresses the continuing threat of another Dust Bowl-like crisis and what needs to be done to ensure that it does not happen
From the Paper "The assertion that even without human-induced blunders there would have been at least somewhat of a crisis in the 30's seems like a distinct possibility. There was a definite shift in climate, consisting of severe blizzards, prolonged severe drought, and even a flood to start it all off. Temperature swings between summer and winter were even more severe than usual and dry spells and occasional downpours seemed to strike at the most inopportune moments time and time again (Bonnifield, 1979). Taking these things into account, it seems that even without over-planting, lack of erosion-control and other human mistakes, some sort of agricultural downturn would have taken place."
Abstract This paper examines the environmental problems that occur due to emissions from coal-fired power plants. The paper focuses on the older power plants in the Great Lakes region. The paper discusses the problem and explores solutions to rectify the situation. The paper contends that, despite pollution issues, there are many reasons to support coal-fired power plants, and therefore, the most promising solution involves tighter regulation of coal-fired power plants, particularly reducing the pollution caused by older plants, such as those in the Great Lakes area.
From the Paper "Out of the entire electric industry, coal-fired power plants contribute 96% of sulfur dioxide emissions, 93% of nitrogen oxide emissions, 88% of carbon dioxide emissions, and 99% of mercury emissions (Dirty coal power). Today, there are fish consumption advisories for mercury contamination in 45 states and 20% of American women of childbearing age have levels of mercury that exceed what is considered safe for a fetus (Mercury from coal-fired power plants). Coal-fired power plants is responsible for over 90% of mercury contamination in the Great Lakes (Gluckman, 2004) Further, EPA studies reveal that air pollution from coal-fired power plants triggers asthma attacks, bronchitis, and heart disease, and contributes to about 30,000 premature deaths a year (New source review/ coal-fired power plants)."
Abstract This paper uses "An Introduction to the World's Oceans" by Keith Sverdrup to back up some of the serious issues raised through recent research conducted by the U.S. Commission on Ocean Policy, in particular, the ongoing and future pollution threats to ocean waters, citizens, and marine life. Journal articles also supplement the paper and the topics being reviewed.
Table of Contents
Introduction
The Economic Value of Oceans to Americans
Waste Dumping in Our Oceans
Oil Contamination from Various Sources
Toxins and Trash Entering the Oceans
The Depleted Fisheries
The Vanishing Wetlands
Conclusion
References
Endnotes
From the Paper "The U. S. Commission on Ocean Policy reports that more than 28 million gallons of oil from human activities enter North American waters annually, but, according to an article in Issues in Science and Technology, "the bulk of human-related inputs is not due to large-scale spills and accidents that occur during the transport of crude oil or petroleum products" (Rabalais, 2003). In fact, researchers looking for sources of oil that runs into America's oceans can look into the "chronic low-level releases" of oil that add up to "roughly 16 million gallons of oil" annually, running down rivers and streams, according to the Rabalais article.
These oil pollutants "are most obvious in the watersheds that drain heavily populated areas," and the data from the U.S. Commission on Ocean Policy, plus the Sverdrup textbook, indicate that coast areas are becoming more and more heavily populated. Some of the 16 million gallons draining originates with "jettisoned aircraft fuel, marine recreational vehicles, and operational discharges, such as cargo washings and releases from petroleum extraction." "
