Abstract This paper discusses tsunamis, wave trains, or series of waves, generated in a body of water by a sudden disturbance that vertically displace the water column. They ravage coastlines and can be deadlier than hurricanes. Whereas a hurricane is identified weeks in advance, a tsunami can often strike without warning. It examines how scientists have attempted to develop a methodology by which to determine areas where the underwater geography might be conducive to tsunami and have shown that outer continental shelf off southern Virginia and North Carolina is particularly susceptible. It concludes with suggestions of how the relevant communities should be prepared and forewarned before tsunamis strike.
From the Paper "History has demonstrated to us that these landfall events are rare and usually precipitated by an earthquake. Rather than being constantly subjected to the randomness of geological whim, the Atlantic coast has only produced one tsunami over the course of the last 75 years. Although these tsunamis are deadly, their effects would be indistinguishable from the tidal effects of hurricanes that threaten to strike the eastern seaboard at least once every year. Rather than involve our selves in the costly business of timing tsunamis, the state might consider integrating safeguards into its shoreline infrastructure that would protect the local population against the sea."
Abstract Radioactive dating is the process of determining the age of rocks and other specimens from the decay of their radioactive elements. By applying this information, geologists are able to decipher the 4.6-billion-year history of the earth. The paper introduces the history of this type of dating in chronological order. It discusses other issues related to radioactive dating such as Carbon-14 dating, fission track dating, Potassium Argon Dating, the Rubidium-Strontium method, lead-alpha age and debated ideas of radioactive dating.
From the Paper "Cosmic rays from the sun strike nitrogen 14 atoms in the earth's atmosphere and cause nitrogen atoms to lose a proton making it a carbon isotope this then turns into radioactive carbon 14, which combines with oxygen to form radioactive carbon dioxide. All living things are in equilibrium with the atmosphere, and the radioactive carbon dioxide is absorbed from the air and used by green plants. Then the radioactive carbon dioxide gets passed on through the plants into the food chain and the carbon cycle. All living things contain a constant ratio of Carbon 14 to Carbon 12 of about 1 in a trillion. The amount of carbon 14 lost in a species is continually replenished as long as it still takes in food and oxygen. At death, the exchange of carbon 14 ceases and any that is left in the tissues of the organism begins to decay to Nitrogen 14, this is not replenished by any new C-14. The change in the Carbon 14 to Carbon 12 ratio is the basis for dating this dating technique. The half-life is so short (5730 years) that this method can only be used on materials less than 70,000 years old. A lot of archaeological dating uses this method. It is also very useful in attempting to date remnants of the ice ages (Pleistocene epoch.)"
Tags: Marie, Pierre, Curie, Clair, Patterson, U, 235, atom
Abstract Discusses different kinds of Hermit Crabs, their habitats and their characteristics. Usefullness in research. Series of activities of Hermit Crabs value for research into decision-making. Importance of shells and skill selection behavior. Ability of researchers to observe the assessment procedure of the crabs. Variouis experiments on Hermit Crabs in reference to animal behavior; response to stimuli.
From the Paper "Hermit crabs usually are found in empty gastropod shells, seeking protection from predators, desiccation, and other hermit crabs. The hermit crab does not seem to select a place to stay at random but rather appears to have a selection process. Precisely what this process is and how the crab makes a decision as to what shell to select and what shell to reject is the subject of much research.
Hermit crabs are crustaceans that live in the wild in the western Atlantic. They mate on land near the sea, and once the eggs develop, the female carries the eggs on her abdomen to the sea and leaves them on wet sand or a wet rock for the tide to carry out to sea. There are usually 1,000 to 50,000 eggs at a time. At sea, the crabs are small larvae that molt several times in order to grow to adulthood. At the adult larvae stage..."
Abstract Analysis of the October 1989 Northern California earthquake. Creation of the 7.1 magnifude quake by a slip in the San Andreas fault line. Depth of the quake. Occurrence of aftershocks and their magnitude. Areas of devastation; why some areas suffered greater damage than others. Landslides. Probability of a repeat high magnitude earthquake.
From the Paper "1989 Loma Prieta Earthquake
The 1989 Loma Prieta Earthquake occurred at 5:04 PM on Tuesday, October 17, 1989. It was measured as a magnitude 7.1 on the Richter scale, a device utilized for measuring earthquake strength. It lasted about 20 seconds and was centered approximately 60 miles south of San Francisco. The tremor could be felt as far south as San Diego and as far east as Western Nevada. This earthquake was pinpointed along the San Andreas Fault line, long considered one of the most dangerous and active portions of the fault.
The famed San Andreas fault line runs along a northwesterly direction about 800 miles from the Gulf of California up to Cape Mendocino just north of San Francisco. This particular fault has been the source of many large quakes, including the 7.0 1838 quake on the..."
Abstract This paper examines the damage recently caused by the natural phenomena of earthquakes and hurricanes and measures that can be taken to to predict their arrival in order to prepare for them. In particular it looks at Hurricane Dennis, which menaced the coast of North Carolina and Hurricane Floyd, which led to a huge evacuation of people from Florida, Georgia and South Carolina. It also discusses the devastating effects of the two earthquakes that hit Turkey in 1999.
From the Paper "The other major natural disaster in the fall of 1999 has been earthquakes, of which there have been several considered major in impact. Indeed, Turkey has been hit twice in different regions of the country. The earthquake in August left a death toll originally estimated to be about 500. This was a quake of magnitude 7.8 on the old Richter scale, making it almost as powerful as the 7.9 in San Francisco in 1906, which killed 700 people. The earthquake in Turkey struck at 3 am. Dozens of buildings collapsed. It is often noted in American cities when there is an earthquake at that hour that the death toll would have been much higher in the daytime when people were out on the street, but it is not clear that this would be true in areas like Turkey where buildings are not as well-constructed and where most of those killed were sleeping in their own beds when the house collapsed about them."
Abstract This paper examines data on the effects of aircraft emissions on stratospheric ozone since the 1960s discovery that the emission of nitrous oxides and water vapor in the engine exhaust from supersonic transport planes may be destructive to the ozone layer. The ozone layer is the layer which keeps much of the sun's biologically harmful ultra-violet radiation from reaching the Earth's surface stratospheric ozone. It also analyzes how the continual destruction and production of ozone and the complex reactions between aerosols and exhaust emissions makes it difficult to assess the extent of the problem with currently available data.
From the Paper "In 1971, Crutzen's theory was used to block the plan for the development of a fleet of high-speed supersonic aircraft (SSTs). It was believed that the nitrogen oxides in the exhaust from these planes would pose a serious threat to the ozone layer. As a result, the U. S. SST plan was abandoned. It is paradoxical that, while the environmental consequences of increasing the number of high-speed aircraft are viewed as being a serious threat to the ozone layer, air travel continues to increase annually (7). The demand for faster aircraft for travel to more distant destinations is spurring atmospheric chemists to research the effects of emissions from SSTs, and to develop ways to make engines whose exhaust is less damaging to the ozone layer."
Abstract This paper summarizes the article written by Prof. Kerry A. A. "Toward a General Theory of Hurricanes" which appeared in the July, 1988 edition of "American Scientist" and which calls for the placement of the physics of hurricanes in a more general context. The paper shows that Emanuel's reasoning behind this is that it would allow scientists to predict how the frequency and intensity of these storms would respond to changes in climate and allow scientists to relate hurricanes to seemingly different phenomena such as oceanic storms of the polar night and dust devils.
From the Paper "The question of why hurricanes are so rare is considered next, for it is often known that there are several empirical condition that are necessary but not sufficient for the formation of hurricanes. There is some limitation which prevents these from being sufficient in most cases, and Emanuel considers a number of numerical simulations which may give a clue. He says there is a need for a strong starting disturbance, and this is consistent with the observation that real hurricanes never start spontaneously. The model of Rotunno and Emanuel is asymmetric and does not allow variations of the explicitly calculated fields around circles centered at the storm center. To start a hurricane, it was necessary to impose on the basic state a weak vortex which decays upward from the surface. This is the disturbance which starts the process toward a hurricane."
This paper discusses the geologic and environmental aspects of the Anoka Sandplain, a large sandy glacial outwash plain covering approximately 2200 square kilometers to the north of the Twin Cities Area in Minnesota.
Abstract This paper explains the land use and management strategies of the Anoka Sandplain, which can be used for light industry such as sand and gravel mining, community districts such as business and residential areas and farming of alfalfa. The author believes that, when managing sandplains, we should take a cue from Mother Nature, which requires no outside inputs. The author feels that the best management is xeriscaping, which is landscaping that involves using plants that have minimal water requirements once established and require very little maintenance in general.
From the Paper "Land management through erosion control is also important on the Residential and Commercial level. Practices in these areas include, the use of barriers preventing surface erosion from building sites to enter the natural environment. Also by using erosion blankets on loose soil, planting native grasses to hold soil, and by using retaining walls to hold critical slopes."
Abstract This paper explains that GPS provides all-weather round-the-clock navigation capabilities for the military and is an integral asset in numerous civilian applications and industries around the globe, including recreational uses such as boating, aircraft and hiking, corporate vehicle fleet tracking and surveying. The author states that the military's Precision (P) code provides positional accuracy to within approximately 20 meters. The paper reports that the first eleven spacecraft (GPS Block 1) were used to demonstrate the feasibility of the GPS system; the orbit inclination was 63 degrees, differing from the 55 degrees used for the operational system.
Table of Contents
Abstract
Background: Global Positioning System (GPS)
Problems to be Solved
Technical Discussion
Launch Facts
Future Prospects
From the Paper "SLR will continue to be essential for measuring temporal variations of the gravity field given the passive simplicity of these orbit targets and the decadal span of precision data. With the launch of Lageos 2 in 1992 and Stella in 1993, in combination with the older geodetic satellites Lageos, Starlette, and Ajisai, estimates of the temporal variations of the gravity field will undoubtedly be improved in accuracy, and spatial and temporal resolution. Geophysical modeling of temporal gravity variations will also continue to be important, since their combination with the satellite estimates will improve our knowledge of the solid Earth, ocean, and atmosphere. The development of realistic eddy resolving multi-layer ocean models forced by real wind fields will be an important resource over the next few years for determining the role played by the atmosphere and oceans in the excitation of the Earth's gravity and rotational variations [Rosen, 1993]. Future improvements in the long-wave-length models of the time-invariant gravity field will depend on accurately modeling or estimating both the tidal and non-tidal gravity variations, as the current uncertainties for the low degree coefficients are at the same level as the known temporal variations of the coefficients. While tidally-induced variations have been modeled for many years, the importance of modeling non-tidal variations in gravity is only now becoming apparent."
Abstract This research paper sheds light on the destruction caused by super typhoon Pongnosa in Guam on December 11, 2002 and its aftermath. Furthermore, the paper highlights the efforts of the contemporary as well as the previous governments and the necessary remedial measures taken by other authorities. The paper also includes a discussion on the impact of this shattering mishap on the tourism industry, which is the mainstay of Guam's economy.
From the Paper "According to the special reports regarding the hazardous typhoon, ?with winds upward of 180 miles per hour, Pongsona descended furiously on Guam December 8 with the intensity of a Category 5 hurricane,? razing homes of the majority of Guam's residents, setting oil and other combustible tanks on fire (American Red Cross helping thousands: 2002). The ravage evaluation reports by Red Cross assessed that seven thousand and nine hundred homes were obliterated with more than three thousand homesteads experiencing complete destruction at the hands of Pongsona."
Abstract This paper discusses how glaciations, huge sheets of ice that cover huge areas of land, have made significant contributions to many aspects of Canada's environment. It looks at how today, glaciers are tourist attractions in mountainous areas throughout Canada, bringing in millions of dollars in tourism funds. In addition, glaciers are a natural resource and people in Canada are able to harness the power of these frozen streams. It shows that without Canada's intense glaciations, there would be less water for wildlife, for agriculture and for hydroelectric power.
From the Paper "While glaciers are recognized as important additions to Canada's natural beauty, many say that they present great risks to the country . Scientists believe that the gradual decay of the southern edges of the Arctic permafrost will drastically alter surface water drainage patterns and increase the land's instability. As a result, there may be large disruptions to pipelines, rail lines, roads, and other facilities. The effect on ice roads could be very negative. Built across frozen wetlands and lakes, these roads provide an important supply link to many remote communities and provide access to large areas of timber in the boreal forest."
Abstract This paper examines how Galveston City was devastated by one of the worst ever storms to strike America on September 8, 1900 claiming the lives of more than 8000 people and the total destruction of properties. It looks at how in the book ?Isaac's Storm,? Erik Larson describes how Isaac Monroe Cline, a chief staff of the American meteorological department studied the progress of this devastating storm and how it had a destructive effect on the business climate of this once commercially vibrant city. It analyzes the effects the storm had on the development of the city as well its economy and industry.
Outline
Galveston City (Before the Storm)
Impact of Hurricane
Insurance Sector
The Current Economic Situation
Tourism
The Galveston Port
Conclusion
From the Paper "The impact of the hurricane on the corporate sector was not the least in any way. The Galveston economy was never fully restored or recovered from the terrible disaster. Galveston, which so far surpassed Houston in attracting business investors, suffered a big loss of confidence on the part of the investors. Oil business flourished in neighboring Houston and this lured the international business community away from Galveston. Furthermore the city which was serving as one of the busiest trading ports in the whole of the United States was experiencing a virtual trading dead lock. Galveston, which was a leading port in cotton exports, suffered a severe loss in that sector also. The greatly successful cotton trade was drastically affected because of the total ruin of the Galveston port. The city lost its position as the leading cotton trader in the country and this affected its economy in a big way."
Abstract This paper begins by providing an overview of the early life and education of scientist Alfred Wegener. It then discusses his initial idea of the Theory of Continental Drift and how this developed. The writer then explores different evidence for the theory and examines the concept of 'panagea'. The paper discusses reactions to Wegener's theory as well as support. It concludes with a discussion on his final expeditions and what he hoped to achieve.
From the Paper "Alfred Lothar Wegener (1880-1930), German meteorologist, Arctic explorer and a brilliant interdisciplinary scientist, is best known as for his theory of "continental displacement" (that became famous, later, as the theory of continental drift). Since the technological means for proving the theory had not yet been developed and the idea was a radical departure from the scientific thinking of the time, Wegener's theory was widely rejected during his lifetime. After gradual accumulation of evidence in support of the idea, the theory finally gained acceptance in the early sixties."
Abstract Twenty thousand years ago, mile-thick glacial ice sheets that extended from Canada to the Ohio River covered Michigan and most of northern North America. It took more than 12,000 years for the ice to melt, leaving Michigan a glacially scarred landscape with the Great Lakes. This paper focuses on the ancient Michigan basin area and presents a brief geological history of the area. It discusses how the mammals that lived during the Ice Age, such as mammoths, horses, camels and saber-toothed tigers adapted to their environment over the years, with some eventually becoming extinct.
From the Paper "The sperm whale represents a prehistoric carnivore that still exists today and Michigan boasts one of the largest fossils from a prehistoric sperm whale. Even during prehistoric times, the Great Lakes as we know them now were larger and connected to the Atlantic Ocean. This may be one reason why the sperm whale survived. Today, they are found far from land in very deep waters, which probably had been there environment during the Pleistocene Epoch."
Abstract American military fighting men who saw action in Vietnam between 1965 and 1973 participated in perhaps the most unusual battleground ever. Often, the Viet Cong and North Vietnamese soldiers did not wear uniforms, making the enemy virtually indistinguishable until they opened fire. But equally frustrating for American and other allied fighting forces was the unusual terrain of Vietnam, which not only protracted the way, but also made victory a virtual uncertainty. I will look at some of the geographic conditions in which allied forces fought and why the terrain put our men at such a grave disadvantage.
