Abstract This paper takes a look at the history and development of rights of homosexuals in America leading up to the present. The writer cites examples of states, such as Texas, that have intentionally held onto a law prohibiting sodomy as a means to punish homosexual men. The paper includes examples of court cases that illustrate the struggle faced by homosexuals and their supporters for equality.
From the Paper "The increasing inability of government to legislate sexual behavior, and therefore to regulate homosexuality, does not mean that homosexual rights are a universal inevitability. Attempts to add a clause to the Employment Non-Discrimination Act that would prohibit discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation continue to face narrow defeat. Legislators are also at odds regarding efforts to include homosexual bias in the list of hate crimes violations. These examples of continued resistance indicate the kind of ongoing opposition to and revulsion for homosexuality that remain prominent in American society."
Abstract It is generally believed that males are less risk averse than are females in most situations. Additionally, it is commonly held that young adults and adolescents are generally more prone to engage in risk taking behavior than are older individuals. Most contemporary studies that assess risk taking behavior in young adults focus on sexual activity and confirm these beliefs. However, attitudes towards riskiness in more general, non-sexual situations are less often examined. This paper assesses the gender differences in risk taking attitudes in 15 separate situations of varying risk. Twenty participants (10 male, 10 female) took part in a survey on risk taking behavior by young adults. The results confirmed the belief that males are less risk averse generally, but also found a significant interaction between sex and situation, indicating that in certain specific situations females would be less risk averse. The paper includes tables.
From the Paper "The results of this study also indicate that alcohol use probably has little causal impact on risk taking. All of the respondents were alcohol free when taking the survey, and most of the situations to which they responded posited alcohol free decisions. Still, the general finding that males were less risk averse held. Some care should be taken in broadly applying the findings of this study. The few situations in which females were the less risk averse may indicate that, in the universe of all possible situations, the general findings could vary. Future iterations of this study should attempt to more fully catalogue risky situations to explore this finding more thoroughly. Other directions that future studies should take would include variables such as race or ethnicity, religion, and socio-economic status to how complex the interplay between personality and willingness to take risks is."
Abstract This paper explains psychologist Sigmund Freud's Psychoanalytic Theory - that homosexuality is a result of a traumatic childhood experience, particularly that of a dominant mother's excessive attachment to her son. The paper discusses oedipal complexes and cross-sex-typed behavior.
From the Paper "A homosexual person is someone who is sexually attracted to members of the same sex, and most likely, has been so since childhood. Since sexual behavior is often influenced by society and personal values, engaging in homosexual activity is merely a mark, not a requirement, of a homosexual. In psychology, many theories focus on unconscious conflict due to childhood experiences, and those conflicts? role in shaping adult personality. The analytic technique concentrates on those experiences so that a person may explain behavior and heal those conflicts, thus becoming a healthier, more stable adult. One of the theories evolving from these premises, is that homosexuality is the result of "early developmental disturbance" (Isay 7)."
Abstract This paper examines the dramatically different way in which male and female artists portray the same act - an 'indecent proposal' of money for sexual favors. To facilitate the comparison, artists are all Dutch painters active in the 1600s. Judith Leyster's "The Proposition" is used as the key female illustration of an indecent proposal, while a number of her male contemporaries (Baburen, Honthorst, Molenaer, Ter Borch, Vermeer) are examined for the male perspective.
From the Paper In 1893, during a cleaning of The Jolly Toper, a painting acquired by the Louvre as a Frans Hals, a curious discovery was made. In the lower corner of the work was the emblem "JLS?" - the monogram of the previously-unknown artist Judith Leyster (1609-1660) . Though highly regarded in her own 17th century Holland, Leyster's work had been essentially lost until this accidental discovery. Leyster shared the fate of many female artists, whose work is often lesser known and not as favorably regarded as that of their male contemporaries. Works within a genre made by male and female artists often demonstrate sharp differences in the way each sex portrays the subject matter. Comparing Judith Leyster's The Proposition with several other similar works by her male Dutch contemporaries readily illustrates this point.
A look at the argument that natural factors play a stronger role in determining sex roles than the influences prescribed by environmental and social factors.
Abstract This paper discusses the idea that men are more aggressive and dominant and women are more passive, and have the will to nurture others because of their biological predispositions. It examines how social factors can influence the gender role of an individual to a certain extent whereas biological factors still serve as the stronger influence, overall. It looks at how socialization such as allowing women to serve in the armed service, the kibbutz experience where women are treated like men and the concept of equal opportunities in the work place, have failed to prove that nurture does not surpass the role of biology in the determination of sex roles.
From the Paper "Let us stipulate that socialization is an inadequate explanation for the key determination for sex roles in society. According to such logic society has the ability to influence boys and girls to act in a specific manner. However, one should be skeptical. Why is society so effective at getting males and females to act in the way that it wants them to when it has so much trouble obtaining compliance with its other desires? To be more specific let us use the words of Browne. She states in her book, Biology at Work, ?Parents attempt by instruction and example to cause their children to clean their room, eat their vegetables, close the door, do their homework, and cooperate with their siblings. To the grief of many a parent, however, these lessons often do not easily take.? (Browne, 100)"
A thorough study on the different reactions of girls and boys to school sports. The paper questions whether separation for school sports will have a better impact on girl's participation.
Abstract This research examines the influence of social norms on the participation of females in athletic activity. The research examines studies showing how strongly social expectations and socially determined sex roles limit participation of adolescent and adult females in physical activity and then discusses ways in which cultural pressures are reflected in female-student behavior in elementary school physical-education classes and school-recess activities. Based on this research and on observations of behavior at an elementary school, this study suggests possible changes in the physical education curriculum that can encourage activity for girls and help them connect it to positive social experience.
From the Paper "A 1997 government report on research into female participation in sports concluded that regular physical activity could decrease the risk of adult obesity, coronary heart disease, and osteoporosis and increase mental health and self-esteem. Even though today's experts in physical education and children's health urge young people of both sexes to get exercise and participate in sports, statistics show that many children and adolescents are overweight and inactive and that the condition continues into adulthood. An important part of that problem is the declining physical activity of adolescent women. Reasons that females drop out of sports activities as they enter adolescence adulthood may be social pressures rather than a simple loss of interest in exercise. It is important to understand the reasons behind the decrease in females' physical activity because of the need to bring those who are not active back into a program of more healthy exercise. Another factor of importance where this issue is concerned is that physical inactivity in the modern world seems to be starting with children at a very young age. Thus there is a sense of urgency in the background of understanding the phenomenon."
Abstract This paper describes and analyzes the role of women in the Zionist movement from the late 1800s until the creation of the State of Israel in 1948, using appropriate historiography and primary sources. It emphasizes the ideological bias inherent in the Zionist history of the time. It also incorporates feminist revisionist historiography.
From the Paper "Many Europeans came to pre-state Israel with high expectations of equality. Among their most ambitious goals was the elimination of gender inequalities, a purpose that never was achieved fully. The role women played in the creation of the modern state of Israel was hugely important and has not received a proportionate amount of respect or analysis in comparison with that of men from historians and society in general. Despite the noteworthy idealism of the Zionist movement, the gender inequalities of the European Diaspora were transformed and reinstituted during the creation of Israel."
Abstract McClary brings the idea that during the early nineteenth century, concepts such as identity and masculinity were being newly defined, with art being one of the defining processes. This paper introduces some examples from art of this period, looking at the commentary of McClary to illustrate this theory. According to the paper, it is difficult for readers and listeners to separate the biographical details of the artist from the work.
From the Paper "Schubert, on the other hand, was not a well-known composer in his own time. By the time his work became open to criticism, Beethoven's work so dominated the critical mind as the epitome of German manhood that critical response to Schubert's work was labeled feminine. If Beethoven's directness, violence, and ferocity in his music was male, surely Schubert's flexibility and lack of tonal anchoring, engendering sympathy and attraction, were female. At least, this was the way critics of the period viewed the difference."
Abstract This report examines a specific aspect of the sociology of emotions, that of dealing with love, where elements of power and status are omnipresent. The paper explores the idea that emotions are physiological and biological and thus part of the study of anthropology. The writer includes many events as examples including love, sexuality, marriage, divorce and family values, among others. The paper concludes that there is a biological basis for emotional expression and the development of the normative influences which shape emotion is one of the most important contributions of social scientists working in this particular field.
From the Paper "Perrucci and Knudsen (1990) have noted that the changes which are now being observed in the composition of the traditional American family began in the nineteenth century, when institutions other than the family itself became significant in the lives and shaping of individuals and their attitudes. Schools, which emphasized individual achievement, jobs in industry which were individual rather than family positions, and courtship shifts in which the interest of the individual became paramount - each of these factors was somewhat instrumental in eliminating the power, authority and influence of the family unit."
Abstract This paper discusses how the principal difference between the use of sexuality in "Genesis" and the "Epic of Gilgamesh" is that in the former it is part of the curse of suffering and mortality while in the latter it precedes mortality -- literally. In both cases sex is domesticated, in the sense that it is necessary for procreation and the continuation of the human race. And in both cases sex is also domesticating, in the sense of being an agent of domestication. The writer explains that there is an enormous difference between the role of sexual relations in the account of the domestication of Enkidu and in the Biblical account of the sin of Adam and Eve and their expulsion from Eden; in the former it is a powerful human urge that can lead to advances in human civilization and in the latter it is something that humanity must overcome.
From the Paper "Sex is far more incidental in the Gilgamesh epic than it is in the Book of Genesis in that while sexual relations can be a source of controversy -- as in Ishtar's frustration over Gilgamesh -- it is not repeatedly shown to be a source of conflict and an occasion of sin as it is in Genesis. The murderous sexual jealousy of Potiphar's wife resembles that of Ishtar in some ways but it takes place on the level of human-human interaction that has little to do with the kind of divine-human interaction that is central to Gilgamesh. In Genesis the all-powerful, ungendered god creates humanity and gives it free will which allows it to make mistakes in choosing between serving god and offending 'him.' But the god of Genesis is always interested in what happens to his people and wants them to persevere and win out. In the Gilgamesh epic the gods are largely indifferent to the fates of human beings whom they have created as servants and human procreation is just an ingenious means of perpetuating this race of servants. When the gods decide that Enkidu, and all humanity, must be mortal, however, there is no essential connection between this fact and the fact of human sexuality. This is not the case in Genesis."
Abstract The findings of research studies over time have been consistent in associating the phenomenon of intimate partner violence with intergenerational transmission, low socioeconomic status, social and structural stress, social isolation and personality factors of both perpetrators and victims. This paper shows that most prior research in the area of intimate partner violence has focused on the identification and assessment of inter-individual variations in behaviors and life experiences. An alternative approach to such research is a focus on intra-individual variations in the behaviors of individuals involved in intimate partner relationships. Literature is reviewed in this paper in support of a proposed study that will investigate the metamotivational states of male batterers through a focus on intra-individual variations within a framework of reversal theory. Following the literature review, research questions and hypotheses are developed for the study proposed to investigate the metamotivational states or modes of male batterers.
From the Paper "Self-awareness theory is concerned with the ways through which individuals control and direct their behavior (Wicklund, 1975). Within a sociological context, the relationship between self-awareness and social identity is perceived as a realization by an individual of variations between their own self-image and the ideal self-image associated with a salient reference group, and a response by an individual to such a realization (Abrams, 1994). Within the context of cognitive psychology, the self-awareness/social identity relationship is described in "terms of control theory, in which negative feedback loops operate to enable individuals to match their behaviour to particular standards" (Abrams, 1994, pp. 90-91)."
Abstract This paper reviews the film "What Women Want" and in particular looks at why society imparts so many gender roles on men and women. It examines how the film is not a film about an attractive throwback to the Stone Age, but how it certainly portrays what a large group of men still believe about women, even today when there is supposed to be more "equality" between the sexes. It evaluates how Mel Gibson's over the top caricature of the hopelessly chauvinistic male at the beginning of the film is not actually as far-fetched as it might seem, which makes it all the more appalling. Today, many men still see women only as sex objects and even the most liberated man still believes he should head up the household and bring home the major portion of the bacon.
From the Paper "Society looks at men and women differently, despite the advances women have made in women's rights. Women as leaders are viewed differently than men as leaders; it is that simple. In "What Women Want," Helen Hunt is viewed with skepticism, especially by Mel Gibson, when she first takes over the leadership role in the agency. The old adage "she slept her way to the top" is often the only way men can justify a woman's rise to prominence in business or government. Men simply do not want to admit that a mere woman might be more talented or qualified than they are, and so must make up personal reasons for professional results. This is not that unusual either, and the statistics of women who serve at the head of major corporations bears this out. There are far fewer women in positions of importance in large companies than men, the percentage is somewhere in the teens, rather than the sixties or even seventies."
Abstract This paper introduces the book "The War against Boys: How Misguided Feminism is Harming our Young Men," by Christina Hoff Sommers, an engaging book about modern feminist values and how they are affecting young people. It looks at how Christina Hoff Sommers believes society is emasculating boys with feminine values, while supporting girls in the classroom and beyond. It shows how in a world where men seem to dominate, Sommers' thoughts are a breath of fresh and much-needed air and how skewing the moral and mental values of boys and girls seems to be far more damaging than we realize. It examines how Sommers shows how "feminizing" boys could forever change the way men see the world and themselves and could be far more damaging than most people realize.
From the Paper "One reason Sommers cites as evidence for her beliefs and findings are the education statistics for young men in America today. She notes, "Boys, on average, are a year and a half behind girls in reading and writing; they are less committed to school and less likely to go to college" (Sommers 14). The author includes a myriad of statistics and tables, which bear out her findings, especially in the learning patterns of boys versus girls. Boys simply do not hold up in most of the studies done. For example, Sommers states, "Girls read more books. They outperform males of tests of artistic and musical ability. More girls than boys study abroad. More join the Peace Corps. Conversely, more boys than girls are suspended from school. More are held back and drop out" (Sommers 25). Her volume is filled with statistics such as these, illustrating not only her research abilities, but also the idea that our educational systems are failing today's boys ? and failing them badly."
Abstract This paper discusses how sexual harassment continues to be a problem in the workplace, for women as well as a growing number of men. The first part of this paper examines the reasons behind the persistence of sexual harassment and looks at its deleterious effects on the workplace. The second part of the paper then recommends measures to address this problem.
From the Paper "In 1998, following a class action lawsuit for sexual harassment, Salomon Smith Barney agreed to set aside $15 million to enact policy changes aimed at making the company a more hospitable environment for women. This landmark settlement resulted from investigations showing that the brokerage firm was guilty of practices like intimidation, explicit sexual talk, excluding them from meetings and hiring strippers for company entertainment parties held at the firm's infamous "boom boom room" (Antilla 28). Salomon Smith Barney is by no means the only high-profile sexual harassment case drawing attention. Mitsubishi recently settled $34 million sexual harassment lawsuit involving female workers at its manufacturing plant in Normal, Illinois. The soap-manufacturing company of Dial settled a similar $10 million lawsuit, after the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) charged them with violating sexual harassment statutes at their plant in Aurora, Illinois. Many experts believe that thousands of other cases in smaller, lower-profile companies simply go unreported."
This paper discusses the people who were instrumental in changing the political and social "landscape" of American women in the 19th and 20th centuries: John Adams, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Susan Brownell Anthony, Frederick Douglass and Betty Friedan.
Abstract This paper presents the important contributions of each individual in shaping the history of the women sector as they fight for their rights and liberation from the patriarchal and oppressive American society during their time.The author presents Elizabeth Cady Stanton, who organized the first women's convention, the Seneca Falls Convention in 1848, where the "Declaration of Sentiments" was publicly announced the base for the 19th amendment in the US Constitution. The paper cites that Betty Friedan's psychological and social analysis of the American women sector paved the way for a new women's rights (feminist) movement, giving women the opportunities in a society previously dominated by men.
From the Paper "John Quincy Adams is the second president of the United States and one of the main proponents for the formulation of the US Declaration of Independence. Adams figures into the women's rights history because he is the spokesman for the Declaration of Independence proposal in the Congress during his term as a legislator. The drafting of the Declaration of Independence became an important chance for women to assert their rights in the society, such as the right to vote and have jobs/roles equal to that of men's roles and jobs. The formation of the Declaration of Independence became an important issue as Adams considered the significance of the inclusion of women's rights to the law that will be formulated. Despite the influential opinion of his wife Abigail Adams to take into consideration the rights of women in the society, Adams have a different view of how the Declaration of Independence will be crafted?that is, women's rights will not be included in the said law."
