Abstract This essay discusses the history of women in the Middle East. The author examines this from the rise and fall of pre-Islamic matriarchal society, and concentrates on the status and role of women through the birth of Islam to the Umayyad and Abbasid Empires.
From the paper:
"Women were considered of equal, if not higher status than men in many pre-Islamic societies, they were matriarchal. Catal Huyuk, a Neolithic settlement from around 6000 B.C.E. is one example of a culture where there is strong evidence showing that women were of such status. Leila Ahmed also claims that studies of the region have showed that "Supremacy of a goddess figure and elevated status of women were the rule rather than the exception"? According to Ahmed, ruins were found to have women in the larger burial platforms, and paintings and decorations mostly consisted of female figures."
Tags: abbasid, ite, kharijite, qarmation, shi, umayyad, culture, figure, islam
A discussion regarding the legal rights of Black Americans from the time they were brought to America as slaves. Specific reference is given to the various laws that were passed during the 19th Century.
1,870 words (approx. 7.5 pages), 4 sources, 2001, $ 59.95
Abstract In this paper the author discusses the situation of Black Americans and assesses whether the abolishment of slavery has provided any greater protection under the law. The author starts at the beginning of the 19th century and looks at how Blacks were taken into slavery and brought to America. The author moves on to discuss the Missouri Compromise and the discussions that took place regarding "slave free states". The author then discusses then various laws that were passed during the 19th century and how the issue of slavery was eventually brought before the nation.
From the paper:
?For a brief period during Reconstruction, many African Americans voted, and some were elected to public office. In the late 1870?s, however, enthusiasm for ensuring black equality waned in both the North and the Republican Party, and by 1877, when federal troops were withdrawn from the South, blacks were left to the power of whites committed to restoring white supremacy.?
Abstract This paper points to effects that the French Revolution and Napoleonic Wars had in shaping British national identity. It also shows the effect French culture had in dividing British culture, the differences in the monarchy and government between the two countries, and how these threats of French influence united the British people.
From the paper:
"Linda Colley's book is entitled 'Britons', yet her intellectual history of the era between 1707-1837 it contains a sizeable amount of information about the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars. One of her book's central contentions is that it was England's relationship with and against France that enabled to England to fully define itself as a nation and for the concept of the British people as "Britons" to be developed. The French Revolution both threatened the "Briton"s? safety as a nation and its ideology. It was this threat and this challenge that enabled all of these new "Britons" to form a more cohesive sense as a people. Furthermore, the fear that the French Revolution sparked in the hearts of the British elites and the British government enabled the monarchy to be reformed without being overthrown."
The following paper discusses Christopher R. Browning's "Ordinary Men Reserve Police Battalion 101" and "The Final Solution in Poland" with reference to the War Against Terror.
1,520 words (approx. 6.1 pages), 0 sources, 2003, $ 50.95
Abstract This paper supports Browning's thesis that the despicable behavior of Hitler and his allies towards another race, as seen in World War II, is no aberration but is rather entirely possible and even probable in other places and times. The writer makes reference to Osama Bin Laden and the Taliban comparing the organization to a totalitarian regime.
From the paper:
?Drawing extensively on primary source material, including transcripts of investigations and war crime trials, Browning asks how "ordinary men" could have carried out the horrific acts that are described in his book in such detail. His answer is disturbing, because he avoids facile generalizations that would provide a comfortable psychological distance between "us" and ?them.?
This paper examines the ability of African-American families to exhibit resiliency can be understood through a consideration of their historical circumstances
Abstract This paper examines African-American history and the values that this community has, despite their history of slavery, discrimination and poverty. It examines the community's strong commitment to education, a strong work orientation, and sense of responsibility. This paper also includes a study of African-American resiliency that was developed by the author in order to find out what adversities African-Americans faced in the pursuit of their education. The results of this study were then analyzed, and compared to the findings of prior research done on the subject. The survey included questions about age; experiences of racism, or discrimination; family structure during childhood and who helped raise them; and motivating factor for staying in school.
From the paper:
"As slaves, black children were informally adopted and raised by other people in their immediate community rather than nuclear family arrangements. These extended family arrangements are still a prominent feature of contemporary African-American families and may be considered a major survival tool. The most important service provided by black kinship networks is support to single mothers, especially teen mothers. Hill's research has revealed that kin provide a wide range of support to young single mothers, often enabling them to complete their education or to obtain a job. Finally, the religious beliefs and behavior are strengths that exist among African-American families. In his research, Hill found that 82 percent of black adults said that religion was very important in their lives."
Abstract This essay looks at purpose of the pre-colonial economy in Latin America and the methods employed by the Spaniards to control the natives and production under colonization. It examines the diverse population the Spaniards found upon arrival, and how the Spaniards simply superimposed themselves upon existing structures. The four main labour systems used by the Spanish are outlined. The exploitation based on the economic systems implementated by the Spaniards is explored.
From the Paper "The process of colonization within any one country or group of countries was conditioned by the pre-existing historical circumstances and the attractiveness of its resources to the colonisers. In turn, these affected the degree of exploitation and the nature of the developments that took place and consequently the level of marginalisation that occurred within the economy and society. The conquest of Latin America was carried out by the Spanish, Portuguese, French, Dutch and British. But it was Spain who secured the largest, richest and most diverse territory, and did so with great rapidity. Within 70 years of Columbus's arrival in the Caribbean, Spain had overthrown the Aztec and Inca empires and occupied most of middle and western South America."
Abstract The universal declaration of human rights is dissected in this paper in order to challenge the notion of human rights and religion interacting cohesively. The three major religions: Judaism, Christianity and Islam and their opinions on human rights are carefully examined in this paper, as well as their differences and similarities regarding this issue. Several examples of said human rights violations are described in respect to these religions. This paper tries to find a balance between human rights and respect for religious belief , which depends on the most important human right, the right to choose.
From the Paper "Judaism, Christianity and Islam have much in common. All are, "founded on the eternal command to love one God, oneself, and all neighbors. Each tradition recognizes a canonical text as its highest authority- the Bible, the Torah and the Qur"an.? The similarities continue in delegating authority to officials to propagate the faith, the embracing of an expanding body to interpret and enforce the religion's decree, the presence of a refined legal structure (the canon law, Halakha and Shari?a) and the endeavor of each religion to imbue its religious, ethical and legal values into the daily lives of individuals and communities. Religious laws are not necessarily in breach of human rights so long as the freedom to choose religion or no religion is acknowledged. However, as has happened throughout history and even today, when religious laws are constructed by a state affecting all citizens, their option of a different or no religion becomes impossible."
Abstract This paper describes the daily lives and culture of the black American Muslim and Nation of Islam communities. The paper defines these groups and their customs and religious rituals. It illustrates the historical leaders of the black Muslim movements, including in depth biographies of Malcolm X and Louis Farrakhan. The paper discusses the missionary and racist elements in these movements.
From the Paper "Religion is important to many Americans not simply because they believe that their faith will bring them to a better world in the afterlife or because it will guide their actions as a moral and good individual here on earth but also because it provides them with a sense of self-identity. Religion tells people who they are, how they are different from other people, to which community they belong. This may be especially true for black Muslims. This paper examines the black Muslim and Nation of Islam movements within the larger context of religious life in contemporary America and the context of the daily lives of black Americans as we enter the 21st century.
It may be helpful for us toe begin with some basic definitions. Black Muslims are simply those followers of a predominantly black religious movement in the United States who profess Islam as their faith. Not all of the followers of this movement are in fact black, although nearly all of them are black or have a black member of their family (such as a spouse or child) who is involved. The movement encompasses not only spiritual and liturgical aspects of life but political and wide-ranging cultural as well, including an emphasis on economic cooperation and self-sufficiency for black communities and individuals. "
Tags: black, muslim, nation, islam, regilion, contemporary, america, identity, 21st, century, united, states, spiritual, political, cultural, farrakhan, malcom, x
Abstract This paper looks at how the religion of Islam, Western modern culture and ancient African cultures and traditions all come together to create the "African culture". The writer claims that there is no one such culture and there is a patchwork of many cultures all fusing together. The countries of Mali and Nigeria are analyzed as an example.
From the Paper "From the distance of the New World, Africa may appear to be a relatively homogeneous country, black and exotic and poor and fighting a losing battle against AIDS. But Africa is no more homogeneous than is the United States. It is a fascinating and ever-changing blend of cultural values and social institutions, many of them shaped by the intersection of three essential forces: indigenous beliefs and values, Western cultural values and practices, and Islam. This paper explores how these three come together in Nigeria and Mali."
Abstract This paper analyzes the book "Nervous Conditions" by Tsitsi Dangarembga and shows how the main characters Tambu and her brother Nhamo manage to overcome their poverty and inferior living conditions to rise to the challenges they set for themselves - to receive an education and to not be psychologically damaged by their surroundings.
From the Paper "Set in Rhodesia (Zimbabwe), Nervous Conditions, by Tsitsi Dangarembga, is a novel about the life of a young girl named Tambu and her dream of being educated. A squalid life and environment had nothing to offer the persistent Tambu other than starvation and the preparation to be a housewife in the future. Nevertheless, she looked up to Maiguru, the wife of her well-educated uncle, Babamukuru. Maiguru surpassed the society's definitions of women being just housewives with no need of education. Likewise, Nhamo, Tambu's brother, looked up to Babamukuru, whom he wanted to be as intellect as by alienating himself from his family, his culture, and his early childhood promises and dreams."
Abstract This paper looks at American identity and how it has evolved over the past two centuries. The author discusses that the United States is a nation of immigrants that came to build a country where everyone would be equal. The author discusses how Abraham Lincoln and Richard Nixon are examples of presidents whose actions and fates are a reflection of this notion. The author finds that Americans are introspective and are constantly comparing themselves to others and they believe that every individual can make a difference. This is reflected in literature, film and other mediums.
From the Paper "But who are we as Americans? First, we must always remember that we are a nation of immigrants and descendents of immigrants, and that no person is more equal than any other ? not by wealth, not by bloodline, nor by political or religious affiliation. We are a classless society that promotes the individual's inalienable rights of freedom. President Richard Nixon, a man who abused his executive power and resigned in disgrace, said that the "greatest of America does not like in our economic strength or in our unequaled wealth. It cannot be measured by military power or diplomatic prestige. Other nations have been wealthy and powerful. But their wealth was for the few. The remainder"had duties rather than rights, favors rather than privileges. It took daring on the part of our founding fathers to say that all men were created equal?.In America, there is no forgotten man, no common man, no little man, no average man. There is only our fellow-man.?"
Tags: man, nixon, lincoln, war, world, freedom, immigrant, individual, wealthy, freedom, rights, integrity, constitution, literature
Abstract This paper endeavours to explore the impact of the slave trade on West Africa. It examines how the historical injustices of the slave trade have undeniably affected West Africa detrimentally in the political, economic and social arenas. It details the recent discussions by leaders of nations historically involved in the slave trade as they determine what reparations can be made to the victims of this inhumane practice. It gives an historical overview of the slave trade in general and specifically in West Africa.
From the Paper "Before embarking on the political, economic and social fallout of the slave trade on West Africa, it is important to give a brief description of this blight in history. From the middle of the 15th century, the Portuguese initiated the slave trade. They were followed by the Spaniards and at a lengthier period (1562) by the British. Then in rapid succession by the Dutch (approximately 1620), the French (approximately 1640), the Swedes, Danes and Prussians, before culminating in its most awful activities in the 18th century (Morel, E.D., 1920, 4). Foreigners conducted wholly unprovoked attacks on African villages and kidnapped the young people who were strong enough to work their sugar and coffee plantations as well as for domestic servitude in their homes. The export of Africans to the New World furnished the workforce for the colonial plantations and mines whose yield (gold, silver and, most importantly, sugar, cocoa, cotton, tobacco and coffee) were the principal components of global commerce (M?Bokolo, E., 1998, 2). The horror of the Africans being torn from their homes and their families is matched only by the horror of the number of Africans who perished in the course of transportation on the slave ships
??. the slaves could not turn around, were wedged immovably, in fact, and chained to the deck by the neck and legs?.not infrequently would go mad before dying of suffocation?.in their frenzy some killed others in the hopes of procuring more room to breathe?.men strangled those next to them, and women drove nails into each others? brains.? (Morel, E.D., 1920, 4)."
Tags: slave, trade, West, Africa, Black, political, social, history
Abstract This paper discusses 'Things Fall Apart' by the Nigerian novelist Chinua Achebe. It is informed by a sense of history and how it reflects on the process of colonisation. It explores Achebe's motivations behind 'Things Fall Apart' and evaluates the ways in which the novel acts to reclaim Africa's genuine past. It describes the novel's plot and analyzes the use of tragic irony.
From the Paper "The Nigerian novelist Chinua Achebe is one of the most prominent figures in post-colonial literature and he actively seeks to reclaim African heritage. Western colonisation of Africa destroyed native religions, languages and forcibly replaced African heritage with the European culture. In this sense, people of post-colonial countries feel they have been denied their true history and seek to rediscover their past. Achebe strongly disagreed with the existing portrayal of his homeland and it is through his novel Things Fall Apart (1958) that Achebe realises his desire to expose the Western view of African history as false and repossess Nigeria's genuine past."
Abstract The writer examines the essay titled "Hate Radio" in which Williams expresses her alarm about the absolute freedom of expression allowed on the radio which in turn has become almost hate talk and open racism.
From the Paper "In her essay "Hate Radio," Patricia J. Williams comments on the growing trend of "anything goes" talk radio, led by radio personalities who seem determined to anger as many people as possible, and who cater to an audience of people empowered to say almost anything, no matter how prejudiced or ill-informed about other groups of people."
Abstract This paper studies different culture and their absorption into North American culture. It studies cultural justice,by taking a close look at the identity of different cultures. It details where the culture finds its value, what the traditions that make it rich are, and what values are held in the highest value. It defines the term authenticity and studies its meaning with context to North America. It discusses different cultures such as: African-Americans, North Americans, Chines, Italian and more.
From the Paper "Cultural identity, that which defines an individual's heritage, belief system and values within the larger framework of society, is distinguished by tradition, ritual, language and history. In studying cultural justice, the responsibility to not only understand and embrace cultural differences, but also to discourage and dissuade cultural prejudices, particularly negative ones, one must take a close look at a culture's identity. Where does the culture find its value? What are the traditions that make it rich? What values are held in the highest esteem? There is a tendency, particularly in a multi-cultural society such as ours, for individuals who identify with a particular culture, to shed their ethnic or cultural values and to embrace those typical of the North American lifestyle. Some say this is necessary in order to create a viable North American culture. Others would argue that the richness of various cultural identities is what makes our culture so attractive."
