Describes the ideas of four of Russia's prominent thinkers around the time of the 1917 Bolshevik Revolution: Blok; Lunacharsky; Gershenzon; and Ivanov.
Abstract This paper discusses the works of four Russian thinkers and shows how their ideas helped to shape the emerging culture and its art. The works examined are "The Intelligentsia and the Revolution" by Aleksandr Aleksandrovich Blok, "The Collapse of Humanism" also by Blok, "Theses of the Art Section of Narkompros and the Central Committee of the Union of Art Workers Concerning Basic Policy in the Field of Art" by Lunacharsky, "Revolution and Art" also by Lunacharsky, and "Correspondence Across A Room" by Vsevolod Ivanov and Mikhail Osipovich Gershenzon.
From the Paper "In what is perhaps a more in-depth look at the changing values of the revolutionary culture, Ivanov and Gershenzon exchange a series of letters on the subject in Correspondence Across A Room, which is a compilation of their exchanges. Unlike Blok and Lunacharsky, these thinkers are less interested in designating the roles of various groups in the new culture, although they explore similar terrain. Each argues for a sort of "cultural renewal", in the sense that they argue for the continued vitality of the culture, but, excepting Lunacharsky, each of the aforementioned thinkers argues for this. What distinguishes Gershenzon's thinking, however, is that he makes a specific argument for cultural renewal, whereas Ivanov sees the continued vitality of the culture as being "preserved" through cultural memory."
Abstract This paper defines and discusses in detail the concepts and ideas of the single European Market. The paper analyzes the European Monetary System (EMS). The paper explains that the EMS came about after several attempts to stabilize exchange rates among members of the European community. In time, the European Community developed a plan to introduce a single currency into the market, the Euro. The paper presents a literature review on this topic.
From the Paper "According to a book entitled "The European Monetary System and European Monetary Union" the single European Market is a product of what began as the European Community of 1978 (Fratianni and Von Hagen). The book explains that the European Monetary System (EMS) was designed to be a single European monetary system (Fratianni and Von Hagen). The authors assert that the EMS was designed in an effort to ?strengthen the coordination of monetary and economic policies among the members of the Community, to stabilize exchange rates, and to take a new step on the road of monetary unification in Europe (Fratianni and Von Hagen).?"
This paper discusses how the Cold War, a conflict based on diverse political ideologies, was mainly "fought" between the U.S. and the U.S.S.R. in the years following the end of World War II.
Abstract This paper explains that the central problem seems to have revolved around the desire of the West to liberate the states of Eastern Europe through democratic reforms and a capitalist economy; however, Joseph Stalin, the tyrannical leader of the Soviet Union, felt that he was entitled to rule the Eastern European countries that the Soviet Union had occupied during the war. The author points out the term "Iron Curtain" meant that the West and the East were divided by an invisible barrier beginning in Berlin, Germany, a barrier based on political divisiveness and social agendas, which could only be penetrated by d?tente and threats, especially via the use and proliferation of atomic weapons. The paper relates that on December 20, 1950, former President Herbert Hoover stated, "Americans have no reason for hysteria or loss of confidence in our security or our future, (for) within American security rests the future security of all mankind"; thereby, summing up the entire Cold War. The United States must persevere to guarantee that such atomic annihilation never occurs, even in a world filled with the possible horrors of uncontrolled technology.
From the Paper "On January 10, 1946, the first General Assembly of the newly formed United Nations convened in London with U.S. Secretary of State James F. Byrnes leading the American delegation. In all, fifty-one nations, most of which were heavily involved in World War II and suffered millions of casualties, took part in this global meeting. The bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in Japan was one of the prime reasons for this delegation, due to the realization of the immense power of atomic energy and its potential for misuse in the form of atomic weapons. On January 24, the U.N. agreed to an international Atomic Energy Commission that in essence would impose highly restrictive laws regarding atomic energy and its use in wartime as well as in peacetime. Some historians have recognized the development of this commission as the initial trigger for the Cold War, due to the fact that it ?placed the Soviet Union, while under the control of Josep Stalin, in a position of defending itself against preconceived enemies that wished to destroy the Communist/Socialist system.?"
Abstract This paper explains that a specific movement in geopolitics of the Cold War begins after the 1945 Conference at Yalta where the Soviets and the Americans drew up specific agreements, which were designed to direct international affairs. It matters little what the accords were because Stalin immediately began violating the agreement. The author points out the idea behind the policy of detente was that rival blocs would increase diplomatic, commercial, and cultural contacts in an attempt to reduce tensions; however, the end of each detente period was marked by a specific and flagrant inequality that invariably led to additional hostilities, such as the invasion of Czechoslovakia by Communists and the erection of the Berlin Wall. The paper states that the eventual fall of communism was assumed to be caused by decades of geopolitical pressures by the Western powers, but the fall of Communism had as much to do with the nature of the ideology and its inevitable rejection by individuals seeking freedom.
Table of Contents
Cold War Periods
Detente
An Uneasy Truce
The Soviet Destruction
The Fall of Communism
From the Paper "During the decades that the Cold War encompassed, anti-Communist world politicians were viewed as belligerent and bellicose and yet, the strength that was so vocally decried by various Soviet sympathizers around the world, eventually led to the destruction of one of the most tyrannical governments in recorded history. American nuclear power incensed Soviet leaders and left-leaning politicians around the world but for differing reasons. Soviet leaders understood that the great power the United States was amassing would be difficult if not impossible to overcome but sympathizers for the communist way of thinking viewed American nuclear power as the ultimate threat to world peace."
Abstract This paper explains that one of the major aims of the European Union was the creation of a single market, amalgamating all the members of the European Union into a single entity, by defining a common commercial policy, reducing the economic difference between the rich and poor members of the European Union, and stabilizing the currencies of the E.U members. The author points out that the European Union, contributing 18% of the world's exports, is the world's largest exporter, which exceeds the United States and Japan, both of whom contribute 16% of the world's exports. The paper relates that there is controversy within the European Union pertaining to the difficulties that economically weaker countries face by the terms restricting the trade in services outside the European Union and the use of their more economical labor force to increase their trade outside the European Union.
From the Paper "In addition, the framework of the World Trade Organization with its trade barrier regulations gives the facility to challenge any steps taken by the third world countries that run contrary to the spirit of the rules of balanced trade. The European Union has taken steps to make these measures more effective by reducing the time limit for taking such decisions and also reforming the decision making process in such a manner that makes it no longer possible for a few countries to stand against the will of the majority by blocking the implementation of retaliatory measures. Instruments for countering counterfeiting permit the stoppage of copied or pirated goods to be stopped at the border. In addition the European Union has made arrangements and negotiated agreements whereby the import of some sensitive items is restricted."
Tags: gatt, export, developed, stabilization, power
This paper argues that the Cold War was the inevitable consequence of the global shift in power, which led to the confrontation between Soviet and American economic interests.
Abstract This paper explains that the basis for the Cold War began even before World War II; after the war, the balance of power shifted from the crippled countries of Britain, France, and Germany, the United States and Russia emerged as the greatest powers, who were already economic and political opponents. The author points out that the two powers had little reason to cooperate; America viewed Russia as ungrateful for American military and economic aid and had a history of unfriendliness to Russia dating back to its support of attempts to overthrow the new Bolshevik regime earlier that century. The Soviet Union was very insular and concentrated upon Soviet security. The paper relates that, in addition to their economic tensions, the United States and the Soviet Union had irreconcilable ideologies, which pushed them towards war; America believed in the idealistic universalism that American values of liberty and constitutionalism have worldwide applicability.
From the Paper "I do not agree with Joseph Siracusa's claim that "the character of the Cold War was essentially ideological and political"; I believe it was economically motivated. "The question of foreign economic policy was not the containment of Communism, but rather more directly the extension and expansion on American capitalism according to its new economic power and needs." At the end of the war, in the West, the United States provided economic aid of almost 40 billion dollars between 1944 and 1952...and led a military alliance (NATO), liberal democracy was generally fostered, and capitalist measures were used to achieve growth."
Tags: nucleur, containment, ungrateful, insular, stalin
Abstract Two great examples of far-reaching human rights violations that have been studied extensively are the treatment of Jews in Nazi Germany, as well as the violations in Chechnya. These two major human rights violations have been viewed quite often throughout the international community. There have been many hours of investigation put into finding and understanding the origins, dimensions, and outcomes of both of these ruthless acts of violence. By comparing the two, this paper provides insight into how these violations first began and all the dimensions associated with the two. It also provides insight into how the human rights movement began and how it has looked to solve these problems.
From the Paper "The combat between federal forces and Chechen rebels has for the most part ceased over the last few years yet the disappearances, torture, and summary execution of detainees continue. The type of fighting has changed from the classical war and has turned into a "dirty war, where human rights violations and not the conquest or defense of territory are the main goals" (Denber). Criminal investigations into disappearances have been very ineffective and poorly enforced and innocent people continue being severely tortured and killed, and the perpetrators easily get away with it."
Tags: United, Nations, WWII, Hitler, Soviet, rebel
Examining the reasons for one party being in power in Russia for several terms, despite the economic depression that has existed since the fall of Communism and the installment of democracy.
Abstract This paper examines the factors that have contributed to the election of the same political party in Russia since the fall of Communism. Russia has been in an economic depression since the fall of the Soviet Union, yet the same party is re-elected through democratic vote. The reasons for this puzzling outcome are discussed in this paper and identified as using democracy to purge the conservative communists of their rank, old elites regaining state control and loyalty of those counting the votes. Each factor is discussed in great detail along with its contribution and impact on the electoral outcome. This paper is ideal for anyone, from a Russian politics expert to a curious novice.
From the Paper "Mikhail Gorbachev, along with the Soviet leaders was the first to introduce semi competitive elections into the USSR and then later Russia. Although elections are a focal point of a democracy, they were not initiated by Gorbachev for this use. "The goal of these elections was to purge the conservative ranks of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU) from their positions of power within state structures as a way to liberate these state institutions and thereby make them available as instruments by executing Gorbachev's economic reforms" (McFaul and Petrov, 24). The existing powers of the Soviet Union at the time of the introduction of democracy were all communists, who held high political ranks. In order for Gorbachev to implement his reformation of the economy, these political figures needed to be removed from their ranks, otherwise there would be great opposition to the changes planned. When these leaders were removed, the state organizations were free from communist control and could be used in any way that Gorbachev desired."
This paper discusses the Cold War between the Soviet Union and the United States, an intricate relationship of ideological, political, and economic factors.
890 words (approx. 3.6 pages), 6 sources, MLA, $ 31.95
Abstract This paper explains that the Nuclear Age, the nuclear arms race, and the Cold War began simultaneously, even before the end of the World War II, when the United States and USSR were at the hub of reshaping the earlier Axis territories. The author explains that the military expenses of the Cold War were a great burden to both sides; for the Soviet Union, its vast military power and expense meant that its people resided in underprivileged conditions, and in the United States, the military expenses exhausted the capital and aptitude that could have been used for the private financial system. The paper relates that, as the conflict between the United States and the Soviet Union increased, it was apparent that the US had a definite technological advantage.
From the Paper "The two countries were time and again disallowed from achieving a shared agreement on major policy matters due to the specific differences, like in the case of the Cuban missile emergency that brought them to the verge of war. (The Soviet Union and the United States) Many unfavorable situations were generated by the hostility during the Cold War. All through the world, the effects of the Cold War were spread out like radiations from the atmospheric nuclear tests in the 1940's, 1950's and 1960's. In the 1950's regarding the Soviet's 'war without borders' there were tensions in the US which resulted in the House Committee on Un-American activities attack on Communism in American culture."
Tags: technological, nuclear, territories, burden, cuba
Abstract This paper discusses the make up of the European Union. The paper explains that the structure of the European Union (EU) is based on 'pillars'. The central pillar of the European Community (EC) is at the heart of the system that contains the EU's governing institutions and performs the supranational functions. The paper claims that the EC pillar is flanked by two other pillars that perform the function of intergovernmental cooperation, Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP) and Justice and Home Affairs (JHA). A coordinating body called the European Council, which is the forum for the leaders of EU member governments, oversees all the three pillars.
From the Paper "The EU institutions listed above are part of the European Community (EC) pillar. As stated in the introduction, there are two other "pillars" of the EU- Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP) and Justice and Home Affairs (JHA). The CFSP is a forum for discussing the foreign policy and security issues, while the JHA tackles issues such as combating crime, drug trafficking, and immigration policies. Over these three pillars stands the European Council that consists of heads of member states and governments and the President of the Commission, supported by the foreign ministers and one member of the Commission. It links the three pillars together and provides the central leadership role. ("Institutional Structure..." 2004) "
Abstract This paper attempts to analyse the interaction between E.U. and Ukraine since its independence in 1992. The material is collected through review of literature, policy papers as well as personal interviews with policy makers and scholars in Ukraine and Europe. It argues that, given the constellation of factors, the sluggishness of cooperation process between the E.U. and Ukraine was partially justified by the realities of Kuchma regime and the E.U.'s agenda at that time. It also looks at how the election of Victor Yuschenko in December 2004 signifies a new era in mutual relations, which requires much more intensive cooperation on both sides.
Table of Contents
Abstract
Introduction
Common Norms, Values, Political and Socioeconomic Standards
The History of Interaction
Recent Developments
In Lieu of Conclusion
From the Paper "Border's existence is rarely unchallenged. By the end of 1990s there appeared new lines of division on the continent between an almost united Europe and the rest. After the EU enlargement in May 2004 Europe's political boundaries still do not coincide with its geographic ones and Ukraine is very active in regaining its rightful place in Europe. According to Avery, 'the term "Europe" has not been officially defined. It combines geographical, historical and cultural elements, all of them constitutive of the European identity. The common experience of proximity, values and historical interaction cannot be gathered in a simple formula and should be revised by each new generation. Therefore, the Commission estimates that establishing the frontiers of the European Union, whose limits will be redefined in the next years, is neither possible nor opportune' (Avery, 1992: 11). Said in 1992, these arguments are still valid today."
Abstract This paper explains the new reality for immigrant population groups in European countries. It looks at how the European Union's open-door policy has allowed for freer movement of immigrant group throughout the continent and discusses how this affects demographics and socialization of these groups. This paper focuses on the Turkish community in Germany.
From the Paper "The ebb and flow of people across borders has been always been a concern for nation-states and with the creation of the European Union this concern has not stopped or ceased but rather intensified within the community. As nationalism disappears in the wake of European integration replacing it will be a European identity yet to be defined. How these communities have integrated their new neighbors as well as the government's response to the increased social and economic strain is an indicator of times to come."
Abstract This paper explains that the Russian-Chechen conflict is a direct brutal clash between the central authorities of a federal state Russia and a sub-national component Chechnya, which has been accorded the rights as per the constitution but demands to be an autonomous state or to have a non-federal relationships. The author points out that most of the Chechen combatants are extremists, who have completely lost their conscience to Islamic establishments and are probably linked to Al-Qaeda, having committed such terror acts as seizing citizens in a hospital in the southern Russian town of Budyonnovsk in 1995 and capturing a school in the North Ossetian town of Beslan in 2004, resulting in the death of more than 500 children. The paper concludes that (1) Chechnya is badly in need of a political solution since armed endeavors during the last nine years have not been fruitful, bringing the Chechen's to a more radical front and permitting the authority of Islamic fundamentalism to penetrate Caucasus and (2) the global society has to show solidarity against extremism because there is no justification, which can uphold the brutal aggression meted out by the Chechen insurgents.
Table of Contents
Describe the Conflict Situation
Define the Reasons for the Conflict
Determine Who if Anyone is at Fault and Why
Is there a Solution?
Conclusion
From the Paper "The September 11 2001 assaults by the Al Qaeda and the condition with the Moscow Theatre provided a better plea to Putin to safeguard his military activities in Chechnya. Currently, the Chechens have been member of the extremists and the battle with them is a component of the international battle on extremism. Prior to 11 Sept 2001, the global society were severe with Russia regarding the Chechen exigency, but thereafter following the assault on Moscow Theater they were inclined to be increasingly cooperative and sparing Russian activities. Gaining the notice of the Western media, the suicide bombings are a proof of Chechnya's instability and the dangers of permitting the insurgent Islamist crusade starting to gather foothold there to flourish."
Abstract It has been suggested that, at least since the mid-1990s, there should be a bridge or tunnel connecting Siberia and North America, across the Bering Strait. From the Russian point of view, it would make the vast nation a trans-shipment point for the majority of the world's most valuable commodities as well as producer of some, including gas, oil, timber, diamonds, gold and fish. Secondly, it has been suggested that such a project would open tourism on both sides. This paper shows that problems that face any initiation of such a project range from the political to the geological. The result is, however, that these problems must be identified and dealt with before it would be feasible to even construct an economically advantageous scenario incorporating the eventual value of trade across such a structure and the cost to build and-perhaps even more cogently, considering climatic factors-maintain it. The factors contributive to a major feasibility study are identified and assessed.
Table of Contents
Chapter I: Introduction and Statement of the Problem
Chapter II: Review of the Literature: Research Questions
Socio-political Factors
Russia's Value to World Markets
Siberia: Still Out in the Cold
Resources to Exploit
Tourism
Timber
Oil
Gold
Diamonds
Fish
Chapter III: Methodology
Chapter IV: Findings
Geology
Cost projection
Chapter V: Discussion
References
Appendices
From the Paper "In the years since the early post-Soviet era, Russia and the United States have been faced with choices new to their relationship. Russia grappled with deciding how close an alignment it wanted with the West. The United States needed to decide how strongly it should assert its power (Legvold, 2002, p. 21+). At least in the case of the United States, that choice was made clear by the Afghan and Iran wars. In addition, that choice has arguably altered the possibilities for Russia. Russia would have had to cut loose of its traditional fears. But "In contrast, if the United States makes a particular strategic choice, the effect on those relations could be major and negative, and the potential for a truly beneficial U.S.-Russian alliance may be lost" (Legvold, 2002, p. 21+). In the aftermath of the Iran war, in particular, it is hard to imagine that the promise of full cooperation has not been damaged severely, another factor which would put serious constraints on an accommodation on both sides that would allow a project as extensive as a Bering Strait connector infrastructure."
Abstract This paper begins by introducing the functions of NATO and then discusses whether the Kosovo conflict was waged as effectively as it could have been. The paper then examines the reason the war was started, the way the war was planned and carried out, the thought that went into the attacks against Serbia. It looks at NATO's involvement in how it eventually ended and what the results were for both ethnic Albanians and Serbs.
Outline
Introduction to NATO
About the Kosovo Conflict: Was it Waged Effectively?
How the Seeds of the Kosovo War were Planted
The Allies and NATO Work Towards Defeating Milosevic
The Strategy used by NATO and the West to fight the Kosovo War
References
From the Paper "The history of ethnic and political strife in the Balkan region defined as Albania-Greece-Macedonia-Yugoslavia-Kosovo is not a straight forward series of events to be able to discuss in a few minutes' conversation, but the reason for the war NATO waged against Serbia can be explained by following the actions of Serbian strong man, Slobodan Milosevic. Milosevic, whose regime, according to the authors in Winning Ugly: NATO's War to Save Kosovo, tried to rid Kosovo of ethnic Albanians, "created the largest forced exodus on the European continent since World War II" (6). The forced exodus of large numbers of ethnic Albanians was nothing new to this group, as the author points out (7), as Serbs lost control over Kosovo during World War I, and the nations of Serbia and Kosovo were combined to create Yugoslavia and tensions continued among Serbs, who hoped to regain control."
